{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,16]],"date-time":"2026-08-16T21:19:10Z","timestamp":1786915150845,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":121,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,4]],"date-time":"2023-12-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1701648000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Arecoline is the primary active carcinogen found in areca nut and has been implicated in the pathogenesis of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) and oral submucous fibrosis (OSF). For this study, we conducted a stepwise review process by combining iterative scoping reviews with a post hoc search, with the aim of identifying the specific mechanisms by which arecoline initiates and promotes oral carcinogenesis. Our initial search allowed us to define the current trends and patterns in the pathophysiology of arecoline-induced OSF and OSCC, which include the induction of cell proliferation, facilitation of invasion, adhesion, and migration, increased collagen deposition and fibrosis, imbalance in immune and inflammatory mechanisms, and genotoxicity. Key molecular pathways comprise the activation of NOTCH1, MYC, PRDX2, WNT, CYR61, EGFR\/Pl3K, DDR1 signaling, and cytokine upregulation. Despite providing a comprehensive overview of potential pathogenic mechanisms of OSF, the involvement of molecules functioning as areca alkaloid receptors, namely, the muscarinic and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (AChRs), was not elucidated with this approach. Accordingly, our search strategy was refined to reflect these evidence gaps. The results of the second round of reviews with the post hoc search highlighted that arecoline binds preferentially to muscarinic AChRs, which have been implicated in cancer. Consistently, AChRs activate the signaling pathways that partially overlap with those described in the context of arecoline-induced carcinogenesis. In summary, we used a theory-driven interpretive review methodology to inform, extend, and supplement the conventional systematic literature assessment workflow. On the one hand, the results of this critical interpretive synthesis highlighted the prevailing trends and enabled the consolidation of data pertaining to the molecular mechanisms involved in arecoline-induced carcinogenesis, and, on the other, brought up knowledge gaps related to the role of the local cholinergic axis in oral carcinogenesis, thus suggesting areas for further investigation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ph16121684","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,4]],"date-time":"2023-12-04T03:40:58Z","timestamp":1701661258000},"page":"1684","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["A Critical Interpretive Synthesis of the Role of Arecoline in Oral Carcinogenesis: Is the Local Cholinergic Axis a Missing Link in Disease Pathophysiology?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1241-5919","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hakan","family":"Gocol","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Melbourne Dental School, The University of Melbourne, Carlton, VIC 3053, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jin Han","family":"Zeng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Melbourne Dental School, The University of Melbourne, Carlton, VIC 3053, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sara","family":"Chang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Melbourne Dental School, The University of Melbourne, Carlton, VIC 3053, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Buo Yu","family":"Koh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Melbourne Dental School, The University of Melbourne, Carlton, VIC 3053, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hoang","family":"Nguyen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Melbourne Dental School, The University of Melbourne, Carlton, VIC 3053, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1429-1323","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicola","family":"Cirillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Melbourne Dental School, The University of Melbourne, Carlton, VIC 3053, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2753","DOI":"10.3109\/13880209.2016.1160251","article-title":"The pharmacology, toxicology and potential applications of arecoline: A review","volume":"54","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pharm. 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