{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T12:20:06Z","timestamp":1792153206161,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":108,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,14]],"date-time":"2024-12-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1734134400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Research Foundation of Korea","award":["RS-2018-NR031026"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2018-NR031026"]}]},{"name":"National Research Foundation of Korea","award":["RS-2023-NR077257"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2023-NR077257"]}]},{"name":"National Research Foundation of Korea","award":["RS-2024-00422678"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2024-00422678"]}]},{"name":"Commercialization Promotion Agency for R&amp;D Outcomes (COMPA)","award":["RS-2018-NR031026"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2018-NR031026"]}]},{"name":"Commercialization Promotion Agency for R&amp;D Outcomes (COMPA)","award":["RS-2023-NR077257"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2023-NR077257"]}]},{"name":"Commercialization Promotion Agency for R&amp;D Outcomes (COMPA)","award":["RS-2024-00422678"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2024-00422678"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Education of Korea through NRF","award":["RS-2018-NR031026"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2018-NR031026"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Education of Korea through NRF","award":["RS-2023-NR077257"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2023-NR077257"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Education of Korea through NRF","award":["RS-2024-00422678"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2024-00422678"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Parkinson\u2019s disease (PD) is a chronic, progressive neurological disorder affecting approximately 10 million people worldwide, with prevalence expected to rise as the global population ages. It is characterized by the degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, leading to motor symptoms such as tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia, postural instability, and gait disturbances, as well as non-motor symptoms including olfactory disturbances, sleep disorders, and depression. Currently, no cure exists for PD, and most available therapies focus on symptom alleviation. This dopamine deficiency impairs motor control, and since dopamine itself cannot cross the blood\u2013brain barrier (BBB), the precursor L-Dopa is commonly used in treatment. L-Dopa is administered with enzyme inhibitors to prevent premature conversion outside the brain, allowing it to cross the BBB and convert to dopamine within the central nervous system. Although these therapies have improved symptom management, recent research has revealed additional molecular factors in PD pathology, such as \u03b1-synuclein aggregation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and lysosomal abnormalities, contributing to its complexity. These discoveries open up possibilities for neuroprotective therapies that could slow disease progression. In this review, we categorize PD therapeutic targets into two main groups: currently used therapies and targets under active research. We also introduce promising small-molecule compounds studied between 2019 and 2023, which may represent future treatment options. By examining both established and emerging targets, we aim to highlight effective strategies and potential directions for future drug development in Parkinson\u2019s disease therapy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ph17121688","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,16]],"date-time":"2024-12-16T06:48:39Z","timestamp":1734331719000},"page":"1688","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["Small Molecules in Parkinson\u2019s Disease Therapy: From Dopamine Pathways to New Emerging Targets"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Hwayoung","family":"Lee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"BK21 FOUR Team and Integrated Research, Institute for Drug Development, College of Pharmacy, Dongguk University-Seoul, Goyang 10326, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7398-6155","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmed","family":"Elkamhawy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, School of Sciences and Humanities, Nazarbayev University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-5842-4928","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Polina","family":"Rakhalskaya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, School of Sciences and Humanities, Nazarbayev University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qili","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"BK21 FOUR Team and Integrated Research, Institute for Drug Development, College of Pharmacy, Dongguk University-Seoul, Goyang 10326, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4882-5621","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hossam","family":"Nada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"BK21 FOUR Team and Integrated Research, Institute for Drug Development, College of Pharmacy, Dongguk University-Seoul, Goyang 10326, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guofeng","family":"Quan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"BK21 FOUR Team and Integrated Research, Institute for Drug Development, College of Pharmacy, Dongguk University-Seoul, Goyang 10326, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kyeong","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"BK21 FOUR Team and Integrated Research, Institute for Drug Development, College of Pharmacy, Dongguk University-Seoul, Goyang 10326, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(18)30499-X","article-title":"Global, regional, and national burden of neurological disorders, 1990-2016: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016","volume":"18","author":"Collaborators","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet. 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