{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,22]],"date-time":"2026-06-22T15:57:35Z","timestamp":1782143855732,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":156,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]],"date-time":"2025-08-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755820800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"MCIN\/AEI\/10.13039\/501100011033\/","award":["PID 2021-125900OB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID 2021-125900OB-I00"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Obesity (lipotoxicity) results from a chronic imbalance between energy intake and expenditure. It is strongly associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM, glucotoxicity) and considered a major risk factor for the development of metabolic complications. Their convergence constitutes \u201cdiabesity\u201d, representing a major challenge for public health worldwide. Limited treatment efficacy highlights the need for novel, multi-targeted therapies. Non-shivering thermogenesis (NST), mediated by brown and beige adipose tissue and skeletal muscle, has emerged as a promising therapy due to its capacity to increase energy expenditure and improve metabolic health. Also, skeletal muscle plays a central role in glucose uptake and lipid oxidation, further highlighting its relevance in diabesity. This review explores current and emerging knowledge on physiological stimuli, including cold exposure, physical activity, and fasting, as well as bioactive ingredients and drugs that stimulate NST in thermogenic tissues. Special emphasis is placed on melatonin as a potential regulator of mitochondrial function and energy balance. The literature search was conducted using MEDLINE and Web of Science. Studies were selected based on scientific relevance, novelty, and mechanistic insight; prioritizing human and high-quality rodent research published in peer-reviewed journals. Evidence shows that multiple interventions enhance NST, leading to improved glucose metabolism, reduced fat accumulation, and increased energy expenditure in humans and\/or rodents. Melatonin, in particular, shows promise in modulating thermogenesis through organelle-molecular pathways and mitochondrial protective effects. In conclusion, a multi-target approach through the activation of NST by physiological, nutritional, and pharmacological agents offers an effective and safe treatment for diabesity. Further research is needed to confirm these effects in clinical practice and support their use as effective therapeutic strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ph18091247","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]],"date-time":"2025-08-22T13:47:49Z","timestamp":1755870469000},"page":"1247","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Physiological Conditions, Bioactive Ingredients, and Drugs Stimulating Non-Shivering Thermogenesis as a Promising Treatment Against Diabesity"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2888-6272","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diego","family":"Salagre","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain"},{"name":"Nutrition, Metabolism, Growth and Development Group, BioHealth Institute Granada (ibs.GRANADA), 18012 Granada, Spain"},{"name":"Neuroscience Institute \u201cFederico Ol\u00f3riz\u201d, Biomedical Research Center (CIBM), University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ciskey V.","family":"Ayala-Mosqueda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samira","family":"Aouichat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain"},{"name":"Team of Cellular and Molecular Physiopathology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Sciences and Technology Houari Boumediene, El Alia, Algiers 16111, Algeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0164-9648","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmad","family":"Agil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain"},{"name":"Nutrition, Metabolism, Growth and Development Group, BioHealth Institute Granada (ibs.GRANADA), 18012 Granada, Spain"},{"name":"Neuroscience Institute \u201cFederico Ol\u00f3riz\u201d, Biomedical Research Center (CIBM), University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.110.225698","article-title":"Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Inflammation in Obesity and Diabetes","volume":"107","author":"Hummasti","year":"2010","journal-title":"Circ. 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