{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T11:45:43Z","timestamp":1772797543018,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]],"date-time":"2025-11-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763424000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Orbia","award":["11270100"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["11270100"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Triboelectrification in fluid systems, and specifically in hydrofluorocarbon (HFC)-based propellants, used in pressurised metered-dose inhalers (pMDIs) remains understudied despite its impact on aerosol behaviour and does delivery. This study investigates how ethanol concentration affects charge generation and dissipation in HFC-152a (1,1-difluoroethane; R152a) flowing through low-density polyethylene (LDPE) tubing, a common valve-stem material in pMDIs. Methods: Controlled experiments measured electrical current, charge accumulation, and flow stability for HFC-152a with varying ethanol concentrations in LDPE tubing. Statistical analysis (two-way ANOVA, p &lt; 0.05) assessed the effects of the propellant and material. Comparative tests include R134a (1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane) and R227ea (1,1,1,2,3,3,3-heptafluoropropane), and the tubing materials are polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), polyvinyl chloride (VINYL), polyoxymethylene (POM), and LDPE. Results: Increasing ethanol concentration produced larger measured currents, reduced net charge accumulation, and improved flow stability; these effects are attributed to ethanol\u2019s higher dielectric constant and conductivity enhancing charge mobility and dissipation. Significant propellant x material interactions were found (p &lt; 0.05): R152a generated the largest responses with PBT and VINYL (~16 nA and ~5.6 nA, respectively), R227ea showed higher responses with POM and LDPE (~8 nA), and R134a delivered the highest flow rates across materials but exhibited limited electrical responsiveness. Conclusions: Ethanol addition mitigates undesirable electrostatic effects in HFC-based propellants by promoting charge dissipation. The results demonstrate the strong material dependence of triboelectric behaviour and underline the importance of optimising propellant\u2013polymer pairings to minimise the electrostatic adhesion of aerosolised particles and improve pMDI drug delivery performance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ph18111755","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]],"date-time":"2025-11-18T09:58:42Z","timestamp":1763459922000},"page":"1755","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Impact of Ethanol on Electrostatic Behaviour of Fluorocarbon Pharmaceutical Propellants"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-9203-5560","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lochana","family":"Ranatunge","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Engineering, Design and Physical Sciences, Brunel University of London, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Manoochehr","family":"Rasekh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Engineering, Design and Physical Sciences, Brunel University of London, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hussein","family":"Ahmad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Engineering, Design and Physical Sciences, Brunel University of London, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wamadeva","family":"Balachandran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Engineering, Design and Physical Sciences, Brunel University of London, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.0c09803","article-title":"Triboelectric Nanogenerator: Structure, Mechanism, and Applications","volume":"15","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1163\/016942410X525632","article-title":"A Review of Electrostatic Measurement Techniques for Aerosol Drug Delivery to the Lung: Implications in Aerosol Particle Deposition","volume":"25","author":"Hoe","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. 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