{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,15]],"date-time":"2026-03-15T14:48:38Z","timestamp":1773586118615,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,13]],"date-time":"2025-12-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765584000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Parkinson\u2019s disease (PD) is frequently complicated by dysphagia, undermining timely and reliable oral dopaminergic medication. Levodopa\u2019s short half-life and delayed gastric emptying in advanced PD result in inconsistent absorption, delayed \u201cON\u201d periods, and challenges to adherence. Orally disintegrating tablets (ODTs) dissolve without water and can mitigate swallowing limitations. Research indicates that selegiline ODT achieves a faster time to peak and higher relative bioavailability via partial buccal absorption, whereas carbidopa\/levodopa ODTs are bioequivalent to immediate release tablets (with similar AUC\/Cmax and approximately 1 h Tmax) without consistent motor advantages but with higher patient acceptability. This review synthesizes the clinical burden of dysphagia in PD, pharmacokinetic constraints of current formulations, and the reasons for ODTs. We highlight 3D printing as a route to personalized, dysphagia friendly therapy, which enables dose individualization, polypills, engineered disintegration or release, and point-of-care production. Feasibility studies underscore stability considerations such as carbidopa, throughput and regulatory requirements (QbD\/GMP), and bioequivalence information. We outline priorities to integrate 3D printed ODTs into PD care, aligning formulation, pharmacokinetics, and human factors to improve adherence and clinical outcomes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ph18121886","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,15]],"date-time":"2025-12-15T10:11:23Z","timestamp":1765793483000},"page":"1886","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Beyond Dysphagia in Parkinson\u2019s Disease: 3D Printing of Orally Disintegrating Tablets (ODTs) for Optimized Treatment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5242-8741","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ying-Ju","family":"Liao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Research and Development, Merdury Biopharmaceutical Corporation, New Taipei City 235030, Taiwan"},{"name":"Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112304, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yao-Jen","family":"Liang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Research and Development, Merdury Biopharmaceutical Corporation, New Taipei City 235030, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Life Science, Fu-Jen Catholic University, New Taipei City 242062, Taiwan"},{"name":"Graduate Institute of Applied Science and Engineering, Fu-Jen Catholic University, New Taipei City 242062, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1038\/s41531-018-0058-0","article-title":"Prevalence of Parkinson\u2019s disease across North America","volume":"4","author":"Marras","year":"2018","journal-title":"npj Park. 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