{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T19:21:01Z","timestamp":1791314461921,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773792000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Scientific Research Deanship at University of Ha\u2019il\u2014Saudi Arabia","award":["RG-24 115"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RG-24 115"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background:\u00a0Nigella sativa (black cumin) seeds are renowned for their ethnomedicinal significance and are rich in bioactive phytochemicals, which contribute to food preservation and the prevention of various diseases through their antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. Accordingly, this study aimed to characterize the phytochemical composition of N. sativa seed extracts, isolate thymoquinone, and assess their antibacterial, antibiofilm, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antidiabetic activities. Methods:\u00a0Nigella sativa seed extracts were prepared using solvents of increasing polarity and analyzed for phytochemical content. Metabolite profiling was performed using UHPLC\/QTOF-MS. Thymoquinone, the major constituent, was isolated via thin-layer chromatography (TLC), further purified using semi-preparative reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC), and evaluated in vitro for antibacterial, antibiofilm, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antidiabetic activities. Results: Extraction yields ranged from 5.5% to 8.4% (w\/w), with methanol yielding the highest phenol (6.34 \u00b1 0.31 mg GAE\/mL) and flavonoid (5.12 \u00b1 0.26 mg QE\/mL) contents. UHPLC\/QTOF-MS revealed a chemically diverse profile dominated by thymoquinone (58% relative abundance), alongside p-cymene, carvacrol, longifolene, and nigellidine. Thymoquinone (Rf = 0.56) was initially isolated from the methanolic extract with a yield of 270 mg\/g and further purified from preparative TLC fractions using semi-preparative RP-HPLC, affording 82 mg of &gt;95% pure compound with a 68.3% recovery, suitable for subsequent biological assays. It inhibited Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, with MICs of 62.5 \u00b5g\/mL against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, and Listeria monocytogenes; 125\u2013250 \u00b5g\/mL against Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium; and 500 \u00b5g\/mL against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Thymoquinone reduced biofilm formation (&gt;80% at 25\u201350 \u00b5g\/mL; MBIC50 \u2248 5.4\u201311.6 \u00b5g\/mL), exhibited antioxidant activity (DPPH IC50 = 52.3 \u00b1 2. 1 \u00b5g\/mL; ABTS IC50 = 41.6 \u00b1 1.9 \u00b5g\/mL), stabilized erythrocyte membranes (IC50 \u2248 14.8 \u00b5g\/mL), and inhibited carbohydrate-hydrolyzing enzymes, with stronger inhibition of \u03b1-glucosidase (~92%) than \u03b1-amylase (~84%) at 128 \u00b5g\/mL. Conclusions: Thymoquinone is a major bioactive constituent of N. sativa seeds, exhibiting consistent multi-target in vitro activity. These findings highlight its functional relevance and in vivo investigations to establish therapeutic potential.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ph19030503","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T17:12:26Z","timestamp":1773853946000},"page":"503","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Exploring the Multifaceted Phytochemical Profile of Nigella sativa and the Therapeutic Potential of Thymoquinone"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2703-617X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamed A.","family":"Fareid","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Laboratory Science Department, Applied Medical Science College, University of Ha\u2019il, Hail 2440, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3968-0536","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gamal M.","family":"El-Sherbiny","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Cairo 11884, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nancy M.","family":"Elafandy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Laboratory Science Department, Applied Medical Science College, University of Ha\u2019il, Hail 2440, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nagat E.","family":"Eltoum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Nutrition Department, Applied Medical Science College, University of Ha\u2019il, Hail 2440, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohamed S.","family":"Othman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biochemistry Department, College of Medicine, University of Ha\u2019il, Hail 2440, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohamed","family":"Shawky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Cairo 11884, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ahmad S.","family":"El-Hawary","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Cairo 11884, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fatma A.","family":"Hamada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Basic Sciences Department, First Year of Health and Medical Colleges, University of Ha\u2019il, Hail 2440, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3091-691X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amira Salah El-Din","family":"Youssef","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Virology and Immunology Unit, Cancer Biology Department, National Cancer Institute, Cairo University, Cairo 11796, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30485","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-80700-y","article-title":"Antibacterial, antioxidant, cytotoxicity, and phytochemical screening of Moringa oleifera leaves","volume":"14","author":"Alluqmani","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alberts, A., Moldoveanu, E.-T., Niculescu, A.-G., and Grumezescu, A.M. (2024). Nigella sativa: A comprehensive review of its therapeutic potential, pharmacological properties, and clinical applications. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms252413410"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.21608\/ejdr.2023.198316.1130","article-title":"Impact of different planting locations on Nigella sativa L. yield in Egypt","volume":"73","author":"Hamed","year":"2023","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Desert Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.15835\/nbha48311957","article-title":"Variation in Nigella sativa quality and its standardization via instrumental analysis: A study based on geographical origin","volume":"48","author":"Ahmad","year":"2020","journal-title":"Not. Bot. Horti Agrobot. Cluj-Napoca"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hannan, M.A., Rahman, M.A., Sohag, A.A.M., Uddin, M.J., Dash, R., Sikder, M.H., Rahman, M.S., Timalsina, B., Munni, Y.A., and Sarker, P.P. (2021). Black cumin (Nigella sativa L.): A comprehensive review on phytochemistry, health benefits, molecular pharmacology, and safety. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13061784"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1528635","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/1528635","article-title":"Nigella sativa L. (Black Cumin): A promising natural remedy for wide range of illnesses","volume":"2019","author":"Yimer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Evid.-Based Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2151","DOI":"10.14260\/jemds\/2020\/469","article-title":"The many therapeutic applications of Nigella sativa: A review of literature","volume":"9","author":"Belgaumi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Evol. Med. Dent. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1080\/10412905.2022.2025464","article-title":"A review\u2014Plant essential oils active against Helicobacter pylori","volume":"34","author":"Elbestawy","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Essent. Oil Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dwita, L.P., Yati, K., and Gantini, S.N. (2019). The anti-inflammatory activity of Nigella sativa balm sticks. Sci. Pharm., 87.","DOI":"10.3390\/scipharm87010003"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ouattar, H., Zouirech, O., Kara, M., Assouguem, A., Almutairi, S.M., Al-Hemaid, F.M., Rasheed, R.A., Ullah, R., Abbasi, A.M., and Aouane, M. (2022). In vitro study of the phytochemical composition and antioxidant, immunostimulant, and hemolytic activities of Nigella sativa (Ranunculaceae) and Lepidium sativum seeds. Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27185946"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.4103\/jpbs.jpbs_364_22","article-title":"Black seeds (Nigella sativa) medical application and pharmaceutical perspectives","volume":"15","author":"Ferizi","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Bioallied Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"118","article-title":"Antibiofilm properties of Nigella sativa seed extract against Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"8","author":"Palanisamy","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Med. Plants Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1041","DOI":"10.1080\/14786419.2018.1539979","article-title":"Identification of anti-nociceptive constituents from the pollen of Typha angustifolia L. using effect-directed fractionation","volume":"34","author":"Zeng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1186\/s13020-023-00745-5","article-title":"A novel microbial and hepatic biotransformation-integrated network pharmacology strategy explores the therapeutic mechanisms of bioactive herbal products in neurological diseases: The effects of Astragaloside IV on intracerebral hemorrhage as an example","volume":"18","author":"Hu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chin. Med."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1405","DOI":"10.1080\/10286020.2024.2371040","article-title":"Mechanisms and therapeutic potential of chinonin in nervous system diseases","volume":"26","author":"Hui","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Asian Nat. Prod. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdel Fattah, T., El-Sherbiny, G.M., Kalaba, M.H., Sharaf, M.H., and Radwan, A.A. (2026). Essential Oil Nanoemulsions: A Novel Strategy Against Extensively Drug-Resistant Bacteria and Human Cancer Cells. Bacteria, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/bacteria5010001"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, C.H., Sun, T.L., Xiang, D.X., Wei, S.S., and Li, W.Q. (2018). Anticancer activity and mechanism of xanthohumol: A prenylated flavonoid from hops (Humulus lupulus L.). Front. Pharmacol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2018.00530"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1460","DOI":"10.1038\/s41597-025-05798-9","article-title":"Whole genome sequencing and annotations of Trametes sanguinea ZHSJ","volume":"12","author":"Lodi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2025.114432","article-title":"Material basis and mechanism of Ephedra sinica in interfering with wind-chill cold","volume":"152","author":"Wu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phymed.2025.157425","article-title":"Reversal of BCAA-driven inflammatory senescence by traditional herbal oil prevents atopic dermatitis relapse","volume":"148","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Phytomedicine"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.17113\/ftb.63.02.25.8560","article-title":"Optimisation of Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction Conditions Using Response Surface Methodology and Identification of Thymoquinone from Black Cumin (Nigella sativa L.) Seed Extract","volume":"63","author":"Kaushik","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Technol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Khan, A., and Rehman, M. (2022). History and traditional uses of black seeds (Nigella sativa). Black Seeds (Nigella sativa), Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"255","article-title":"Traditional and modern usage of Nigella sativa (Black cumin)","volume":"11","author":"Malik","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Phytomed Int. J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchromb.2018.04.042","article-title":"Fingerprint profile and efficacy-associated markers of Nigella sativa oil for geographical origin determination using targeted and untargeted HPTLC-multivariate analysis","volume":"1087\u20131088","author":"Shawky","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. B Anal. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1002\/pca.1289","article-title":"Validated high-performance thin-layer chromatographic method for the quantification of thymoquinone in Nigella sativa extracts and formulations","volume":"22","author":"Barhate","year":"2011","journal-title":"Phytochem. Anal."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.2174\/2589977515666230811092410","article-title":"Therapeutic and phytochemical properties of thymoquinone derived from Nigella sativa","volume":"16","author":"Tiwari","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Drug Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e202402512","DOI":"10.1002\/cbdv.202402512","article-title":"Phytochemical profiling and biological activities of Nigella sativa vinegar extract: An insight into hypoglycemic potential using in vivo and in silico studies","volume":"22","author":"Akhtar","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Biodivers."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e202300222","DOI":"10.1002\/hlca.202300222","article-title":"New selective inhibitors of \u03b1-glucosidase for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus","volume":"107","author":"Khanchouch","year":"2024","journal-title":"Helv. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/S2221-1691(13)60075-1","article-title":"A review on therapeutic potential of Nigella sativa: A miracle herb","volume":"3","author":"Ahmad","year":"2013","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abbas, M., Gururani, M.A., Ali, A., Bajwa, S., Hassan, R., Batool, S.W., Imam, M., and Wei, D. (2024). Antimicrobial properties and therapeutic potential of bioactive compounds in Nigella sativa: A review. Molecules, 29.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules29204914"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2011.09.029","article-title":"Thymoquinone: Potential cure for inflammatory disorders and cancer","volume":"83","author":"Woo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2006.02.022","article-title":"Nigella sativa L.: Chemical composition and physicochemical characteristics of lipid fraction","volume":"101","author":"Besbes","year":"2007","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1002\/1099-1573(200008)14:5<323::AID-PTR621>3.0.CO;2-Q","article-title":"Antioxidant activity of Nigella sativa essential oil","volume":"14","author":"Burits","year":"2000","journal-title":"Phytother. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1208","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.2006.01417.x","article-title":"Nutritional value, functional properties and nutraceutical applications of black cumin (Nigella sativa L.): An overview","volume":"42","author":"Ramadan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6623609","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/6623609","article-title":"Phytochemical profile and antioxidant activity of Nigella sativa L. growing in Morocco","volume":"2021","author":"Tiji","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. World J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crvi.2007.11.001","article-title":"Phenolic composition and biological activities of Tunisian Nigella sativa L. shoots and seeds","volume":"331","author":"Bourgou","year":"2008","journal-title":"Comptes Rendus Biol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1515\/znc-2003-9-1004","article-title":"Chemical composition of the fixed and volatile oils of Nigella sativa L. from Iran","volume":"58","author":"Nickavar","year":"2003","journal-title":"Z. Naturforsch. C"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Derosa, G., D\u2019Angelo, A., Maffioli, P., Cucinella, L., and Nappi, R.E. (2024). The use of Nigella sativa in cardiometabolic diseases. Biomedicines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines12020405"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1865","DOI":"10.1111\/1750-3841.16981","article-title":"Designing novel industrial and functional foods using the bioactive compounds from Nigella sativa L. (black cumin): Biochemical and biological prospects toward health implications","volume":"89","author":"Rababah","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"1","article-title":"Bioactive compounds of Nigella sativa and their therapeutic potential","volume":"8","author":"Rahman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Asian J. Pharm. Clin. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4845","DOI":"10.1039\/c4ay00775a","article-title":"UPLC-Q-TOF\/MS characterization, HPLC fingerprint analysis and species differentiation for quality control of Nigella glandulifera Freyn et Sint seeds and Nigella sativa L. seeds","volume":"6","author":"Qi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Anal. Methods"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.15537\/smj.2021.2.25706","article-title":"Synergistic efficacies of thymoquinone and standard antibiotics against multi-drug resistant isolates","volume":"42","author":"Dera","year":"2021","journal-title":"Saudi Med. J."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16483","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-65991-5","article-title":"Thymoquinone\u2019s potent impairment of multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus NorA efflux pump activity","volume":"14","author":"Ahmad","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1955","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-018-8736-8","article-title":"Thymoquinone inhibits biofilm formation and has selective antibacterial activity due to ROS generation","volume":"102","author":"Goel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chaieb, K., Kouidhi, B., Jrah, H., Mahdouani, K., and Bakhrouf, A. (2011). Antibacterial activity of thymoquinone, an active principle of Nigella sativa and its potency to prevent bacterial biofilm formation. BMC Complement. Altern. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/1472-6882-11-29"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2475","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-71.12.2475","article-title":"Comparison of chemical composition and antibacterial activity of Nigella sativa seed essential oils obtained by different extraction methods","volume":"71","author":"Kokoska","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"929","article-title":"Black cumin (Nigella sativa) and its constituent thymoquinone: A review on antimicrobial effects","volume":"17","author":"Forouzanfar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Iran. J. Basic Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"455","article-title":"A review of the pharmacotherapeutic effects of Nigella sativa","volume":"27","author":"Randhawa","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pak. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"100281","article-title":"Thymoquinone and therapeutic potentials: Updated evidences from clinical trials","volume":"8","author":"Gouda","year":"2025","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ionita, P. (2025). Oxo-Hydrazyl as a substitute for the stable free radicals employed in measuring total antioxidant activity. Antioxidants, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox14040463"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elbestawy, M.K.M., El-Sherbiny, G.M., and Moghannem, S.A. (2023). Antibacterial, antibiofilm and anti-inflammatory activities of eugenol clove essential oil against resistant Helicobacter pylori. Molecules, 28.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202306.2125.v1"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2018.06.159","article-title":"Thymoquinone: A novel strategy to combat cancer: A review","volume":"106","author":"Imran","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1847","DOI":"10.2174\/1389557522666220104151225","article-title":"Thymoquinone: A review on its pharmacological importance, and its association with oxidative stress, COVID-19, and radiotherapy","volume":"22","author":"Taysi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mini Rev. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100020","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prmcm.2021.100020","article-title":"Thymoquinone and its pharmacological perspective: A review","volume":"1","author":"Tabassum","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res. Mod. Chin. Med."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42995","DOI":"10.1038\/srep42995","article-title":"Thymoquinone: An IRAK1 inhibitor with in vivo and in vitro anti-inflammatory activities","volume":"7","author":"Hossen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16597","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-022-23343-8","article-title":"Thymoquinone counteracts oxidative and inflammatory machinery in carrageenan-induced murine paw edema model","volume":"30","author":"Hijazy","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1007\/s13659-023-00424-w","article-title":"Flavonoids as dual-target inhibitors against \u03b1-glucosidase and \u03b1-amylase: A systematic review of in vitro studies","volume":"14","author":"Lam","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Bioprospect."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13016","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-62780-y","article-title":"Thymoquinone attenuates diabetes-induced hepatic damage in rat via regulation of oxidative\/nitrosative stress, apoptosis, and inflammatory cascade with molecular docking approach","volume":"14","author":"Hafez","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108736","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2019.108736","article-title":"The antidiabetic effect of thymoquinone: A systematic review and meta-analysis of animal studies","volume":"127","author":"Bule","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaatabi, H., Bamosa, A.O., Badar, A., Al-Elq, A., Abou-Hozaifa, B., Lebda, F., Al-Khadra, A., and Al-Almaie, S. (2015). Nigella sativa improves glycemic control and ameliorates oxidative stress in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: Placebo-controlled participant-blinded clinical trial. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0113486"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fareid, M.A., El-Sherbiny, G.M., Elafandy, N.M., Eltoum, N.E., Othman, M.S., Sharaf, M.H., Abu-Elghait, M., Elkhashab, D.M., and Hamada, F.A. (2025). Assessment of the risk associated with Bacillus cereus isolates and potential combat with methanolic Artemisia vulgaris extract. Front. Microbiol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1640200"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nagori, M., Rajput, D., Choudhary, G., and Khabiya, R. (2025). Qualitative and quantitative methods of phytochemical analysis. Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry: Principles, Techniques, and Clinical Applications, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781394203680.ch08"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4240","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-82550-4","article-title":"New combination approaches to combat methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)","volume":"11","author":"Sharaf","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.32604\/jrm.2019.04524","article-title":"Evaluation of antioxidants, total phenolics and antimicrobial activities of ethyl acetate extracts from fungi grown on rice straw","volume":"7","author":"Shawky","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Renew. Mater."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1093\/chromsci\/bmz006","article-title":"Comparative metabolite profiling of four citrus peel cultivars via ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole-time-of-flight-mass spectrometry and multivariate data analyses","volume":"57","author":"Fayek","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1038\/nmeth.3393","article-title":"MS-DIAL: Data-independent MS\/MS deconvolution for comprehensive metabolome analysis","volume":"12","author":"Tsugawa","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Methods"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ravi, Y., Vethamoni, P.I., Saxena, S.N., Kaviyapriya, M., Santhanakrishnan, V.P., Raveendran, M., Ashoka, N.N., Choudhary, S., Verma, A.K., and Harisha, C.B. (2025). Anticancer potential of thymoquinone from Nigella sativa L.: An in-silico and cytotoxicity study. PLoS ONE, 20.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0323804"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ravi, Y., Vethamoni, P.I., Saxena, S.N., Meena, S.S., Ashoka, N., Choudhary, S., Singh, R., Verma, A.K., Dhamotharan, P., and Bhardwaj, V. (2026). Preparative Column Chromatography for the Isolation and Identification of Thymoquinone from Nigella (Nigella sativa L.) Seeds. Natl. Acad. Sci. Lett.","DOI":"10.1007\/s40009-025-01927-5"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1124","DOI":"10.3390\/microbiolres14030075","article-title":"Antibacterial, antibiofilm, and anti-inflammatory activities of ginger extract against Helicobacter pylori","volume":"14","author":"Elbestawy","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microbiol. Res."},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"59","article-title":"Exploitation of the anti-bacterial, antibiofilm and antioxidant activities of Salvadora persica (Miswak) extract","volume":"8","author":"Gazelly","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Bioresour. Bioprod."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1016\/S0891-5849(98)00315-3","article-title":"Antioxidant activity applying an improved ABTS radical cation decolorization assay","volume":"26","author":"Re","year":"1995","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fshw.2014.05.001","article-title":"In vitro antioxidant, antimicrobial and anti-diabetic properties of polyphenols of Passiflora ligularis Juss. fruit pulp","volume":"3","author":"Saravanan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Sci. Hum. Wellness"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H97","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1750-3841.2010.01544.x","article-title":"In vitro potential of Ascophyllum nodosum phenolic antioxidant-mediated \u03b1-glucosidase and \u03b1-amylase inhibition","volume":"75","author":"Apostolidis","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."}],"container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8247\/19\/3\/503\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T17:16:11Z","timestamp":1773854171000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8247\/19\/3\/503"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]]},"references-count":73,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]}},"alternative-id":["ph19030503"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ph19030503","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8247"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8247","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]]}}}