{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T22:15:23Z","timestamp":1788387323389,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,28]],"date-time":"2026-03-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774656000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Retinoblastoma represents the most common intraocular malignancy in childhood; however, the clinical applicability of mitomycin C (MMC) is restricted by dose-dependent ocular toxicity. Consequently, the development of pharmacological strategies that sensitize tumor cells to MMC while allowing dose reduction remains an unmet therapeutic objective. In this context, quercetin, a bioactive flavonoid with pleiotropic anticancer properties, has emerged as a potential chemosensitizing agent. Methods: Human retinoblastoma cell lines Y79 and WERI-Rb1 were exposed to MMC and quercetin, administered either individually or in fixed-ratio combinations. Cytotoxic responses were quantified through dose\u2013response modeling and IC50 determination following 24 and 48 h of treatment. Drug\u2013drug interactions were quantitatively characterized using the Chou\u2013Talalay combination index (CI) approach and isobologram analysis. Cell cycle distribution was assessed by propidium iodide (PI)-based flow cytometric analysis to evaluate treatment-associated alterations in cell cycle progression. Apoptotic cell death was assessed by Annexin V-FITC\/PI flow cytometry, while transcriptional modulation of genes associated with apoptosis, cell cycle regulation, and oxidative stress (BAX, BCL-2, TP53, CASP3, CDKN1A, and HMOX1) was evaluated by qRT-PCR. Modulation of tumor-supportive signaling was examined by measuring VEGF and IL-6 secretion. Translational relevance was further investigated using a three-dimensional (3D) tumor spheroid model, and the functional contribution of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was interrogated through N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) rescue experiments. Results: Quercetin significantly enhanced the cytotoxic activity of MMC in both retinoblastoma cell lines, with CI values below 1 across IC50\u2013IC90 effect levels, indicating a synergistic pharmacological interaction. PI\u2013FACS analysis revealed that combined MMC and quercetin treatment induced a pronounced accumulation of cells in the G2\/M phase, consistent with cell cycle arrest, with a more marked effect observed in Y79 cells compared with WERI-Rb1 cells. Combination treatment resulted in a pronounced increase in apoptotic cell populations compared with single-agent exposure and triggered a coordinated pro-apoptotic transcriptional response, characterized by increased expression of BAX, TP53, CASP3, CDKN1A, and HMOX1, alongside suppression of BCL-2 and a marked shift in the BAX\/BCL-2 ratio. Concurrently, VEGF and IL-6 secretion were significantly reduced, reflecting attenuation of pro-angiogenic and pro-inflammatory signaling. Notably, synergistic cytotoxicity was maintained in 3D tumor spheroids, where combined treatment induced spheroid shrinkage, architectural disruption, and reduced viability. NAC pretreatment diminished ROS accumulation and partially restored cell viability, indicating that oxidative stress contributes to, but does not solely account for, the observed synergistic cytotoxic effect. Conclusions: Collectively, these findings indicate that quercetin appears to function as an effective chemosensitizing adjuvant to MMC in retinoblastoma models, through transcriptional changes consistent with p53-associated apoptotic signaling at the transcriptional level, G2\/M cell cycle arrest, and partial involvement of ROS-related cellular stress responses, along with suppression of tumor-supportive signaling pathways. The preservation of synergistic activity in 3D tumor spheroids supports the potential preclinical relevance of this combination. However, these findings are based on transcriptional and phenotypic analyses and should be interpreted as hypothesis-generating, requiring further validation through protein-level and in vivo studies before translational application.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ph19040545","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,30]],"date-time":"2026-03-30T13:41:03Z","timestamp":1774878063000},"page":"545","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Quercetin Sensitizes Retinoblastoma Cells to Mitomycin C Through Transcriptional Modulation of p53-Regulated Apoptotic Genes: A Preclinical Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Erkan","family":"Duman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, WestEye Private Hospital, Erbil 44001, Iraq"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ayd\u0131n","family":"Ma\u00e7in","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Diyarbak\u0131r Private Bat\u0131 Hospital, 21100 Diyarbak\u0131r, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"\u0130lhan","family":"\u00d6zdemir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Kahramanmara\u015f S\u00fct\u00e7\u00fc \u0130mam University, 46040 Kahramanmara\u015f, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"\u015eamil","family":"\u00d6zt\u00fcrk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vocational School of Health Services, \u00c7anakkale Onsekiz Mart University, 17100 \u00c7anakkale, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7317-5467","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mehmet Cudi","family":"Tuncer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Dicle University, 21280 Diyarbak\u0131r, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1436","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(11)61137-9","article-title":"Retinoblastoma","volume":"379","author":"Dimaras","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1016\/j.otohns.2005.09.004","article-title":"Effect of Topical Mitomycin C on the Healing of Surgical and Laser Wounds: A Hint on Clinical Application","volume":"133","author":"Roh","year":"2005","journal-title":"Otolaryngol. 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