{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T17:27:37Z","timestamp":1785432457997,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":245,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,27]],"date-time":"2026-04-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777248000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Italian Ministry of University and Research","award":["2022K4Y33B"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022K4Y33B"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009874","name":"Regione Autonoma Friuli Venezia Giulia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["J93C24002040002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["J93C24002040002"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009874","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["J93C24002040002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["J93C24002040002"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01tjrd904","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Muco-obstructive lung diseases, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cystic fibrosis (CF), and bronchiectasis, are characterized by the accumulation of highly viscoelastic mucus that compromises mucociliary clearance and fosters infection and inflammation. Mucoactive therapy, encompassing both true mucolytics and non-cleaving agents, seeks to restore airway patency by altering mucus structure, hydration, and transport properties, yet its clinical impact remains variable. This narrative review provides a critical reappraisal of the pharmacological actions and therapeutic outcomes of the main mucolytic agents: N-acetylcysteine (NAC), erdosteine, carbocisteine, bromhexine, ambroxol, and dornase alfa. Beyond their classical role in reducing mucus viscosity, these drugs exhibit pleiotropic effects, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory activities. Specifically, for thiol-based compounds, the action consists of breaking the disulfide bonds that stabilize the mucin network; for carbocisteine, it lies in modulating mucin glycosylation and chloride transport. Ambroxol and bromhexine act by stimulating surfactant secretion and enhancing mucociliary clearance. Finally, dornase alfa exerts an enzymatic effect on extracellular DNA, a key contributor to the tenacity of mucus in cystic fibrosis. Clinical evidence indicates that NAC and erdosteine can reduce exacerbation rates in COPD, carbocisteine shows benefit with prolonged administration, and dornase alfa remains a cornerstone in CF management. However, therapeutic efficacy is constrained by heterogeneous mucus composition, pharmacokinetic limitations, and disease-specific variability. A key interpretative message is that clinical benefit appears greatest when the dominant biophysical determinant of mucus pathology is specifically targeted, supporting a transition from broad disease-label prescribing to mechanism-informed, phenotype-aware mucolytic therapy. Emerging strategies, such as agents targeting mucin\u2013DNA interactions and advanced inhalation delivery systems, promise improved specificity and durability. By integrating mechanistic insights with clinical data, this review underscores the need for personalized mucolytic therapy and innovative approaches to overcome current challenges in managing muco-obstructive lung diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ph19050681","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T10:34:42Z","timestamp":1777458882000},"page":"681","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Mucoactive Agents in Muco-Obstructive Lung Diseases: A Critical Reappraisal of Pharmacological Effects and Clinical Outcomes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Domenico","family":"Larobina","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Polymers, Composites and Biomaterials, National Research Council of Italy, P. le E. Fermi 1, I-80055 Portici, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-8302-4502","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giorgia","family":"Franzino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Polymers, Composites and Biomaterials, National Research Council of Italy, P. le E. Fermi 1, I-80055 Portici, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7027-294X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabiana","family":"Tescione","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Polymers, Composites and Biomaterials, National Research Council of Italy, P. le E. Fermi 1, I-80055 Portici, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michela","family":"Abrami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering and Architecture, University of Trieste, Via Valerio 6\/A, I-34127 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Domenico","family":"Tierno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, Strada di Fiume 447, I-34149 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2841-1277","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alice","family":"Biasin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, Strada di Fiume 447, I-34149 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Federica","family":"Tonon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, Strada di Fiume 447, I-34149 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-8025-4814","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"De Nes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pulmonology Unit, Department of Medical Surgical and Health Sciences, Hospital of Cattinara, University of Trieste, I-34149 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marta","family":"Maggisano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pulmonology Unit, Department of Medical Surgical and Health Sciences, Hospital of Cattinara, University of Trieste, I-34149 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paola","family":"Confalonieri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pulmonology Unit, Department of Medical Surgical and Health Sciences, Hospital of Cattinara, University of Trieste, I-34149 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Annalucia","family":"Carbone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, I-71122 Foggia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4791-768X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Confalonieri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pulmonology Unit, Department of Medical Surgical and Health Sciences, Hospital of Cattinara, University of Trieste, I-34149 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9704-6651","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gabriele","family":"Grassi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, Strada di Fiume 447, I-34149 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7246-5622","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sante","family":"Di Gioia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, I-71122 Foggia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3532-3200","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mario","family":"Grassi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering and Architecture, University of Trieste, Via Valerio 6\/A, I-34127 Trieste, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3465-6641","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Massimo","family":"Conese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, I-71122 Foggia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prrv.2007.02.009","article-title":"Mucolytics in cystic fibrosis","volume":"8","author":"Henke","year":"2007","journal-title":"Paediatr. 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