{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T19:35:26Z","timestamp":1791315326498,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777334400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NICDR","award":["1U54DE035412-01360TMDImpact"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1U54DE035412-01360TMDImpact"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Craniofacial and corneal neuropathic pain are disabling conditions characterized by persistent pain that is frequently refractory to conventional pharmacologic and interventional therapies. These disorders arise from complex interactions between peripheral nerve injury, neuroinflammation, and maladaptive central sensitization within trigeminal pathways, features that span neuropathic and nociplastic pain mechanisms as defined by the International Association for the Study of Pain, thus emphasizing the need for mechanism-based, patient-stratified treatment strategies. Regenerative medicine offers a paradigm shift from symptom suppression toward structural nerve repair and functional restoration. This narrative review examines the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying craniofacial and corneal neuropathic pain and critically evaluates emerging regenerative therapies, including autologous biologics (autologous serum tears and platelet-rich plasma), mesenchymal stem cells and their derivatives, exosomes and extracellular vesicles, and neurotrophic peptides. Particular emphasis is placed on corneal neuropathic pain as a translational model, given the cornea\u2019s dense sensory innervation and the ability to non-invasively quantify nerve regeneration using in vivo confocal microscopy as an objective biomarker of treatment response. Clinical evidence across regenerative modalities varies by indication: cenegermin has demonstrated robust efficacy and regulatory approval for neurotrophic keratitis, while platelet-rich plasma shows growing evidence in temporomandibular disorders, myofascial pain, and occipital neuralgia. Cell-based and cell-free therapies demonstrate strong preclinical promise but remain limited by heterogeneous protocols and a paucity of large-scale randomized trials. Key barriers to translation include regulatory uncertainty, lack of standardized outcome measures, and workforce and implementation challenges. Advancing regenerative therapies for craniofacial and corneal neuropathic pain will require rigorous clinical trials, biomarker-driven patient selection, and multidisciplinary collaboration. Sex as a biological variable remains underexplored across all regenerative modalities and represents a priority for future research.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ph19050692","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T10:34:42Z","timestamp":1777458882000},"page":"692","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Regenerative Medicine Approaches to Craniofacial and Corneal Neuropathic Pain"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-7095-9078","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Franzes","family":"Liongson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative Care, and Pain Medicine, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9141-9066","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jin","family":"Yoo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative Care, and Pain Medicine, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-4463-9462","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Benjamin","family":"Swett","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative Care, and Pain Medicine, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steven","family":"Falowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neurosurgical Associates of Lancaster, Lancaster, PA 17601, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-1912-964X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jason","family":"Pope","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Evolve Restorative Center, Santa Rosa, CA 95403, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8867-2140","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dawood","family":"Sayed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, The University of Kansas School of Medicine, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Timothy","family":"Deer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Spine and Nerve Center of the Virginias, West Virginia University Health Sciences, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8227-1864","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jamal","family":"Hasoon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care, and Pain Medicine, UTHealth, McGovern Medical School, Houston, TX 77030, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Keith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8554-8849","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fernando","family":"Guastaldi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ronald","family":"Kulich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care, and Pain Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02134, USA"},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02134, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6276-9056","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christopher","family":"Robinson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pain, Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2350","DOI":"10.1038\/s41433-024-03060-x","article-title":"Corneal neuropathic pain: A review to inform clinical practice","volume":"38","author":"Watson","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2014-306280","article-title":"Ocular neuropathic pain","volume":"100","author":"Rosenthal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. 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