{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T21:27:18Z","timestamp":1790890038582,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777334400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey","award":["221N094"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["221N094"]}]},{"award":["221N094"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["221N094"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04w9kkr77","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: A major challenge in antiviral development is the identification of novel virus\u2013host interactions while ensuring therapeutic efficacy and safety. These challenges have renewed interest in phytochemicals derived from medicinal plants as alternative antiviral agents. Objectives: In this study, we investigated the antioxidant, antiviral, and immunomodulatory properties of a Mediterranean Urtica dioica extract (UdE) against SARS-CoV-2 using chemical, biochemical, and in vitro approaches. Methods: The physicochemical properties of UdE were characterized using microtiter assays and HPLC analysis. Cytocompatibility was evaluated in HEK293T, Vero E6, Caco-2, and Calu-3 cell lines while antioxidant activity was assessed using both chemical and cell-based assays. Antiviral activity was evaluated by assessing inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 receptor binding domain (RBD)\u2013ACE2 interaction using ELISA, inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 main protease (Mpro) activity via FRET assay and inhibition of viral entry using SARS-CoV-2 S1 pseudovirus neutralization assay. Results: UdE (100 \u00b5g\/mL) inhibited RBD\u2013ACE2 binding by 94% and suppressed Mpro activity by 74%, while reducing moderate but significant inhibition of pseudovirus entry (33.6%) at 300 \u00b5g\/mL dose level in ACE2 expressing HEK293T cells. Immunomodulatory analysis revealed significant suppression of IL-1\u03b2 and IL-6 production, accompanied by increased TNF-\u03b1 and IL-8 levels. Conclusions: Collectively, these findings highlight that UdE exhibits multi-target in vitro antioxidant, antiviral, and immunomodulatory activity against SARS-CoV-2; therefore, UdE represents a promising bioactive extract for the management of SARS-CoV-2 infection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ph19050693","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T10:34:42Z","timestamp":1777458882000},"page":"693","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Integrated Evaluation of Urtica dioica Extract Assessing Physiochemical Analysis with Antioxidant, Antiviral, and Immunomodulatory Effects Against SARS-CoV-2"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5378-7829","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gulsah","family":"Akbas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Life Sciences Unit, Marmara Research Center, The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK), Gebze 41470, Turkey"},{"name":"Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul 34220, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Seyma","family":"Aydinlik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Life Sciences Unit, Marmara Research Center, The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK), Gebze 41470, Turkey"},{"name":"Chemistry Group Laboratories, TUBITAK UME, Gebze 41470, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-9732-9217","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jenya","family":"Dursun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Life Sciences Unit, Marmara Research Center, The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK), Gebze 41470, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Frederick","family":"Lia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Applied Sciences, Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology, Paola PLA9032, Malta"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mustafa","family":"Emrem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Life Sciences Unit, Marmara Research Center, The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK), Gebze 41470, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Banu","family":"Mansuro\u011flu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul 34220, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5101-3870","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuksel","family":"Cetin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Life Sciences Unit, Marmara Research Center, The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK), Gebze 41470, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Konaklieva, M.I., and Plotkin, B.J. 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