{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]],"date-time":"2026-08-10T15:31:16Z","timestamp":1786375876473,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":167,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]],"date-time":"2026-08-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786320000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This review consolidates current knowledge on the phytochemical composition, traditional uses, pharmacological properties, and industrial application of Ricinus communis L. This plant belongs to the Euphorbiaceae family and is a globally distributed plant of considerable medicinal and industrial importance. It is rich in bioactive compounds, notably ricinoleic acid as the dominant fatty acid in seed oil, as well as ricin, ricinine, phenolic acids and flavonoids distributed across different plant parts. Variations in phytochemical profiles among cultivars and tissues are influenced by genetic and environmental influences. Traditional medicinal uses of the leaves, roots, seeds, and oil, particularly for inflammatory conditions, pain, infections, wound healing, and gastrointestinal disorders, are critically examined in relation to experimental pharmacological evidence. Castor oil extracted from the R. communis plant remains central to the plant\u2019s industrial value, serving as a renewable feedstock for pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, polymers, lubricants, and biofuels due to the unique hydroxyl functionality of ricinoleic acid. However, the presence of the highly toxic protein ricin in unprocessed seeds necessitates strict processing and safety controls. Overall, R. communis emerges as a chemically versatile species with significant therapeutic and industrial potential, warranting further research into cultivar-specific chemistry, standardization of extraction and testing methods, and safe value-adding applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ph19081258","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]],"date-time":"2026-08-10T15:10:24Z","timestamp":1786374624000},"page":"1258","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Phytochemistry, Pharmacological Potential and Industrial Applications of Ricinus communis L.: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Sinovuyo","family":"Mtendwa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth and Chemical Sciences, Chemistry Discipline, University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, Eastern Cape, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pamela","family":"Rungqu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth and Chemical Sciences, Chemistry Discipline, University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, Eastern Cape, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7820-6442","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vuyani","family":"Maqanda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth and Chemical Sciences, Chemistry Discipline, University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, Eastern Cape, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1038\/s41573-020-00114-z","article-title":"Natural products in drug discovery: Advances and opportunities","volume":"20","author":"Atanasov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jnatprod.9b01285","article-title":"Natural products as sources of new drugs over the nearly four decades from 01\/1981 to 09\/2019","volume":"83","author":"Newman","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131534","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2024.131534","article-title":"Structural characterization and anti-inflammatory activities of a purified polysaccharide from fruits remnants of Alpinia zerumbet (Pers.) Burtt. et Smith","volume":"267","author":"Hou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2299","DOI":"10.1007\/s11101-025-10194-7","article-title":"Medicinal plants and human health: A comprehensive review of bioactive compounds, therapeutic effects, and applications","volume":"25","author":"Latif","year":"2025","journal-title":"Phytochem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Warra, A.A., and Prasad, M.N. (2024). Industrial Crops: Bioresources to Biotechnology, Taylor & Francis.","DOI":"10.1201\/9780429346279"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70117","DOI":"10.1002\/efd2.70117","article-title":"Ricinus Communis: Nutritional Importance, Health Benefits, and Industrial Applications","volume":"7","author":"Raza","year":"2026","journal-title":"eFood"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar, D., Nand, S., Patel, A., and Singh, S. (2025). Medicinal Properties of Ricinus communis L. Oil and Their Applications: An Overview. Ricinus Communis: A Climate Resilient Commercial Crop for Sustainable Environment, Springer Nature.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-96-3224-4_5"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molstruc.2024.139269","article-title":"Anti-inflammatory activity evaluation and molecular docking analysis of four new compounds isolated from M. oleifera seeds","volume":"1318","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mol. Struct."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yoon, Y.E., Ju, S.H., Kim, Y., and Lee, S.J. (2025). Natural Flavonoids for the Prevention of Sarcopenia: Therapeutic Potential and Mechanisms. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26157458"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6459","DOI":"10.2147\/DDDT.S494417","article-title":"Traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of Ruta graveolens L.: A critical review and future perspectives","volume":"18","author":"Luo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Drug Des. Dev. Ther."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Landoni, M., Bertagnon, G., Ghidoli, M., Cassani, E., Adani, F., and Pilu, R. (2023). Opportunities and challenges of castor bean (Ricinus communis L.) genetic improvement. Agronomy, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy13082076"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"466","article-title":"A review on phytochemical constituents and pharmacological activities of Ricinus communis L. Plant","volume":"9","author":"Kumar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5013","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-53700-1","article-title":"The relation between apomictic seed production and morpho-physiological characteristics in a world collection of castor bean (Ricinus communis L.)","volume":"14","author":"Setayeshnasab","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1590\/fst.19620","article-title":"Chemical composition of castor oil","volume":"41","author":"Yeboah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rasetti-Escargueil, C., and Avril, A. (2023). Medical countermeasures against ricin intoxication. Toxins, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins15020100"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guerra Sierra, B.E., Mu\u00f1oz Guerrero, J., and Sokolski, S. (2021). Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals in Tropical Soils an Overview. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su13052574"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chakrabarty, S. (2021). Castor (Ricinus communis): An Underutilized Oil Crop in the. Agroecosystems: Very Complex Environmental Systems, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.92746"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3049","DOI":"10.1007\/s10530-023-03098-0","article-title":"Naturalized and invasive alien plants in the Kruger National Park, South Africa","volume":"25","author":"Foxcroft","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biol. Invasions"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aremu, A.O., and Pendota, S.C. (2021). Medicinal plants for mitigating pain and inflammatory-related conditions: An appraisal of ethnobotanical uses and patterns in South Africa. Front. Pharmacol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.758583"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iatan, E.L. (2025). Abandoned Mine Sites Restoration Using an Industrially Important Crop, Ricinus communis L.. Ricinus Communis: A Climate Resilient Commercial Crop for Sustainable Environment, Springer Nature.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-96-3224-4_9"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9859","DOI":"10.1007\/s11033-023-08904-5","article-title":"Molecular genetics, seed morphology and fatty acids diversity in castor (Ricinus communis L., Euphorbiaceae) Iranian populations","volume":"50","author":"Mahdieh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cla\u00dfen-Bockhoff, R., and Frankenh\u00e4user, H. (2020). The \u2018male flower\u2019of Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae) interpreted as a multi-flowered unit. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2020.00313"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2015.06.003","article-title":"Subcellular cadmium distribution and antioxidant enzymatic activities in the leaves of two castor (Ricinus communis L.) cultivars exhibit differences in Cd accumulation","volume":"120","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cafaro, V., Alexopoulou, E., Cosentino, S.L., and Patan\u00e8, C. (2023). Germination response of different castor bean genotypes to temperature for early and late sowing adaptation in the mediterranean regions. Agriculture, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture13081569"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alexandrov, O.S., Petrov, N.R., Varlamova, N.V., and Khaliluev, M.R. (2021). An optimized protocol for in vitro indirect shoot organogenesis of impala bronzovaya and zanzibar green Ricinus communis L. Varieties. Horticulturae, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/horticulturae7050105"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2015.01.003","article-title":"Quantification of ricin, RCA and comparison of enzymatic activity in 18 Ricinus communis cultivars by isotope dilution mass spectrometry","volume":"95","author":"Schieltz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1007\/s10681-016-1702-6","article-title":"Dwarf hybrids of the bioenergy crop Ricinus communis suitable for mechanized harvesting reveal differences in morpho-physiological characteristics and seed metabolic profiles","volume":"210","author":"Merkouropoulos","year":"2016","journal-title":"Euphytica"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"26","article-title":"Seed Characteristics and Fatty Acid Composition of Castor (Ricinus communis L.) Varieties in Northeast China","volume":"84","author":"Huang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Phyton-Int. J. Exp. Bot."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1080\/15422119.2024.2361674","article-title":"Castor oil extraction: Methods and impacts","volume":"54","author":"Avramovic","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Rev."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1007\/s00344-020-10103-6","article-title":"Water stress-induced responses in the growth, cuticular wax composition, chloroplast pigments and soluble protein content, and redox metabolism of two genotypes of Ricinus communis L.","volume":"40","author":"Ferreira","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Plant Growth Regul."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sujatha, M., and Tarakeswari, M. (2019). Biotechnological means for genetic improvement in castor bean as a crop of the future. The Castor Bean Genome, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-97280-0_14"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"295","article-title":"Genetic improvement of oilseed crops using modern biotechnology","volume":"2017","author":"Alvarez","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Seed Biol."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"1","article-title":"Castor Breeding: Principles, Practices, Objectives, Traits, Challenges, and Advancements","volume":"2","author":"Manikandan","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Mech. Eng. Adv."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zubair, M., Tong, X., Ashraf, A., Li, H., Li, G., Xin, A., Chen, J., Wang, Y., Li, Z., and Huang, J. (2025). Genetic Regulation and Breeding Application of Medium-Chain Fatty Acids Metabolism in Rice. Biology, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/biology14121674"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, A., Zhou, Z., Chen, Y., Sun, J., Li, P., Gu, X., and Liu, A. (2023). Functional genome analyses reveal the molecular basis of oil accumulation in developing seeds of castor beans. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25010092"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymben.2026.03.005","article-title":"Single cell oil enriched in ricinoleic acid biosynthesis from glucose via metabolically rewired oleaginous yeast","volume":"96","author":"Yu","year":"2026","journal-title":"Metab. Eng."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, H., Zhang, X., Huang, S., Li, S., Xu, C., Zhan, C., and Luo, Y. (2026). Analysis of biosynthetic genes of phenolamides in Ricinus communis L. based on metabolomics and transcriptomes. Front. Plant Sci., 17.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2026.1836215"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119684","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2024.119684","article-title":"Integrated metabolomic and transcriptomic analysis of flavonoid biosynthesis in Ricinus communis L.","volume":"222","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1614","DOI":"10.1111\/plb.70235","article-title":"Effects of cotyledon removal on the root growth and physiology properties during early seedling stage of Ricinus communis under salt stress","volume":"28","author":"Deng","year":"2026","journal-title":"Plant Biol."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"33","article-title":"Rapid isolation of ricinine, a pyridone alkaloid from Ricinus communis (L.) with antifungal properties","volume":"12","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Biol. Act. Prod. From Nat."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1007\/s40495-023-00347-7","article-title":"Analgesic and anti-inflammatory potential of Ricinus communis Linn.: Evidence from pharmacology to clinical studies","volume":"10","author":"Gupta","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Pharmacol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"21","article-title":"A review of the chemical composition, modification, and biomedical application of Ricinus communis","volume":"15","author":"Talwan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Indian J. Nat. Prod. Resour."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheikhyoussef, N., and Cheikhyoussef, A. (2023). Bioactive phytochemicals from castor (Ricinus communis Linneo) seed oil processing by-products. Bioactive Phytochemicals from Vegetable Oil and Oilseed Processing By-Products, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-91381-6_33"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.5650\/jos.ess21226","article-title":"Preparation of ricinoleic acid from castor oil: A review","volume":"71","author":"Nitbani","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Oleo Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.1007\/s00210-019-01691-6","article-title":"Ricin and Ricinus communis in pharmacology and toxicology-from ancient use and \u201cPapyrus Ebers\u201d to modern perspectives and \u201cpoisonous plant of the year 2018\u201d","volume":"392","author":"Franke","year":"2019","journal-title":"Naunyn-Schmiedeberg\u2019s Arch. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1973","DOI":"10.1080\/14786419.2020.1839456","article-title":"Ricicomin A, a new alkaloid from the leaves of Ricinus communis Linn","volume":"36","author":"Pham","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Product. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"284","article-title":"Botany, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry and toxicology of Ricinus communis L. A comprehensive","volume":"20","author":"Safdar","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Xi\u2019an Shiyou Univ. Nat. Sci. Ed."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7521","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/7123521","article-title":"Bioactive constituents and toxicological evaluation of selected antidiabetic medicinal plants of Saudi Arabia","volume":"2022","author":"Alqahtani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Evid.-Based Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6847","DOI":"10.1039\/D4FO00509K","article-title":"Polyphenols in edible plant leaves: An overview of their occurrence and health properties","volume":"15","author":"Masiala","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4286","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2022.2140331","article-title":"Extraction and purification of \u03b1-pinene; a comprehensive review","volume":"64","author":"Karimkhani","year":"2024","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Li, X., Jiang, Q., Sun, H., Jiang, J., Chen, S., Guan, Z., Fang, W., and Chen, F. (2018). GC-MS analysis of the volatile constituents in the leaves of 14 compositae plants. Molecules, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules23010166"},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"199","article-title":"Exploring the medicinal potential of Castor (Ricinus communis L.): A comprehensive review","volume":"13","author":"Veeramani","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann. Phytomed. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"356","article-title":"Sustainable extraction and purification of phytochemicals: A review of green solvents and techniques","volume":"9","author":"Darwin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Methodol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lavenburg, V.M., Rosentrater, K.A., and Jung, S. (2021). Extraction methods of oils and phytochemicals from seeds and their environmental and economic impacts. Processes, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pr9101839"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dagdag, O., Kim, H., Haldhar, R., Daoudi, W., and Berdimurodov, E. (2024). Phytochemicals\/plant extracts: Preparation, characterization, and properties. Phytochemistry in Corrosion Science, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781003394631-2"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lezoul, N.E.H., Belkadi, M., Habibi, F., and Guill\u00e9n, F. (2020). Extraction processes with several solvents on total bioactive compounds in different organs of three medicinal plants. Molecules, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25204672"},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"151","article-title":"Recent advances in the extraction methods of essential oils and oleoresins from plant materials and its potential applications: A comprehensive review","volume":"5","author":"Sethunga","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Food Bioprocess Eng."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Neumann, N. (2023). Harnessing Biotechnology and Genetics to Improve Oilseed Biochemistry, Kansas State University. Available online: https:\/\/www.proquest.com\/docview\/2864382869?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Llamas Lois, A. (2015). Biodiesel and Biokerosenes: Production, Characterization, Soot & Pah Emissions. [Ph.D. Dissertation, ETSI_Energia]."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liang, L.H., Yang, Y., Geng, S., Cheng, X., Yu, H.L., Liu, C.C., and Liu, S.L. (2021). Rapid differential detection of abrin isoforms by an acetonitrile-and ultrasound-assisted on-bead trypsin digestion coupled with LC-MS\/MS analysis. Toxins, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins13050358"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34890","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e34890","article-title":"Plant proteins, peptides, and non-protein amino acids: Toxicity, sources, and analysis","volume":"10","author":"Akinniyi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2018.08.061","article-title":"Identification of antioxidant and antimicrobial compounds from the oilseed crop Ricinus communis using a multiplatform metabolite profiling approach","volume":"124","author":"Santos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134588","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2022.134588","article-title":"A novel quality-by-design optimized spectrofluorimetric method for the sensitive determination of ricinine alkaloid in edible oils","volume":"404","author":"Magdy","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"902","article-title":"Extraction, characterization and applications of castor seed oil from wild Ricinus communis","volume":"47","author":"Akpan","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Chem. Soc. Niger."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"200","article-title":"Quantitative Phytochemical Analysis and Antimicrobial Activity of Ricinus communis Linn. Seed oil","volume":"3","author":"Muhammad","year":"2025","journal-title":"UMYU Sci."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"77","article-title":"Isolation and analytical method development of flavonol glycoside, quercetin-3-o-\u03b2-D-glucoside: A review","volume":"15","author":"Desai","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Nat. Rem."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1704","DOI":"10.22146\/ijc.87157","article-title":"Phenolic compounds from Moroccan Retama monosperma L. Boiss, Berberis vulgaris L. and Ricinus communis L.: Characterization, antioxidant activity and performance criteria of the validated method using UHPLC","volume":"23","author":"Outaki","year":"2023","journal-title":"Indones. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"95","article-title":"Phytochemical Profiling, Cytotoxic, Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Potential of Healthy and Cucumber Mosaic Virus Infection of Ricinus communis Leaf Extracts","volume":"7","author":"Asran","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. J. Agric. Sci."},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"5","article-title":"Bioactive metabolites from two local cultivars of Ricinus communis and their free radical scavenging and acaricidal activities","volume":"7","author":"Elnenaey","year":"2015","journal-title":"Der Pharma Chem."},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"15","article-title":"Essential oils: Chemical composition and diverse biological activities: A comprehensive review","volume":"20","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Product. Commun."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.9734\/AJAAR\/2017\/33203","article-title":"Study of Antioxidants, Phytochemicals and Heavy Metals in Crude Leaf Extract in Different Solvents of Castor (Ricinus communis)","volume":"1","author":"Tewari","year":"2017","journal-title":"Asian J. Adv. Agric. Res."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Hayoun, M.A., Kong, E.L., Smith, M.E., and King, K.C. (2026, April 20). Ricin Toxicity. StatPearls, Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/sites\/books\/NBK441948\/."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.5530\/pj.2020.12.138","article-title":"In Vitro Antibacterial and In Silico Toxicity Properties of Phytocompounds from Ricinus communis Leaf Extract","volume":"12","author":"Mboyazi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharmacogn. J."},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"2019","article-title":"Effect of Ricinus communis L on microorganisms: Advantages and disadvantages","volume":"8","author":"Kendra","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Homepage"},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"60","article-title":"Ricin toxicity: Clinical and molecular aspects","volume":"4","author":"Moshiri","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rep. Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2021.03.004","article-title":"Ricin poisoning: A review on contamination source, diagnosis, treatment, prevention and reporting of ricin poisoning","volume":"195","author":"Abbes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nollet, L.M., and Ahmad, J. (2022). Analysis of Naturally Occurring Food Toxins of Plant Origin, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781003222194"},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Joint, F.A.O. (2026, February 15). Hazards Associated with Animal Feed: Joint FAO\/WHO Expert Meeting FAO Headquarters, Rome, Italy 12\u201315 May 2015. Available online: https:\/\/orbit.dtu.dk\/en\/publications\/hazards-associated-with-animal-feed-joint-faowho-expert-meeting-f\/."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1071\/BT16184","article-title":"Structural and phytochemical investigation of the leaves of Ricinus communis","volume":"65","author":"Mamoucha","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aust. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dosoky, N.S., and Setzer, W.N. (2021). Maternal reproductive toxicity of some essential oils and their constituents. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22052380"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2021.114151","article-title":"A simple thermal-detoxified method for castor bean (Ricinus communis L.) cake, and its potential nutraceutical properties","volume":"174","author":"Herrera","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kocyigit, E., Kocaadam-Bozkurt, B., Bozkurt, O., A\u011fag\u00fcnd\u00fcz, D., and Capasso, R. (2023). Plant toxic proteins: Their biological activities, mechanism of action and removal strategies. Toxins, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins15060356"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.5897\/AJMR2015.7397","article-title":"Anti-bacterial, antioxidant and cytotoxicity of aqueous and organic extracts of Ricinus communis","volume":"10","author":"Mansoor","year":"2016","journal-title":"Afr. J. Microbiol. Res."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6519712","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/6519712","article-title":"Phytochemical, cytotoxic, and antimicrobial evaluation of Tribulus terrestris L., Typha domingensis pers., and Ricinus communis L.: Scientific evidences for folkloric uses","volume":"2022","author":"Khalid","year":"2022","journal-title":"Evid.-Based Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gul, A., Shaheen, A., Ahmad, I., Khattak, B., Ahmad, M., Ullah, R., Bari, A., Ali, S.S., and Alobaid, A. (2021). Green synthesis, characterization, enzyme inhibition, antimicrobial potential, and cytotoxic activity of plant mediated silver nanoparticle using Ricinus communis leaf and root extracts. Biomolecules, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom11020206"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Severin, P.N., and Jacobson, P.A. (2020). Types of disasters. Nursing Management of Pediatric Disaster, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-43428-1_5"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buyel, J.F. (2023). Product safety aspects of plant molecular farming. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2023.1238917"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elachouri, M., Ouasti, M., Ouasti, I., and Bussmann, R.W. (2024). Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae. Ethnobotany of Northern Africa and Levant, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-43105-0_177"},{"key":"ref_89","first-page":"41","article-title":"Antileishmanial derivates of natural products from Ricinus communis","volume":"3","author":"Hikal","year":"2022","journal-title":"Aswan Univ. J. Environ. Stud."},{"key":"ref_90","first-page":"59","article-title":"Ethnopharmacological properties of african medicinal plants for the treatment of neglected tropical diseases","volume":"9","author":"Kim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Res. J. Pharmacogn."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100446","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nexres.2025.100446","article-title":"Plant species used to treat various ailments of the North-West Province, South Africa: A systematic review","volume":"2","author":"Matlala","year":"2025","journal-title":"Next Res."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramothloa, T.P., Mkolo, N.M., Motshudi, M.C., Mphephu, M.M., Makhafola, M.A., and Naidoo, C.M. (2025). Phytochemical Composition and Multifunctional Applications of Ricinus communis L.: Insights into Therapeutic, Pharmacological, and Industrial Potential. Molecules, 30.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30153214"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.35516\/jjps.v18i3.3155","article-title":"Therapeutic Potential of Traditional Medicinal Plants from the Central Algerian Steppe for Treating Common Digestive Disorders","volume":"18","author":"Khodja","year":"2025","journal-title":"Jordan J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Setshego, M.V., Aremu, A.O., Mooki, O., and Otang-Mbeng, W. (2020). Natural resources used as folk cosmeceuticals among rural communities in Vhembe district municipality, Limpopo province, South Africa. BMC Complement. Med. Ther., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12906-020-2869-x"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Subramaniyan, V. (2020). Therapeutic importance of caster seed oil. Nuts and Seeds in Health and Disease Prevention, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-818553-7.00034-6"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-98701-5_12","article-title":"Medicinal and aromatic plants in the cosmetics industry","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Vartak","year":"2022","journal-title":"Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of India"},{"key":"ref_97","first-page":"3632","article-title":"Medicinal properties of Ricinus communis: A review","volume":"12","author":"Chouhan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"354","article-title":"Review of the antioxidant potential of flavonoids as a subgroup of polyphenols and partial substitute for synthetic antioxidants","volume":"13","author":"Hassanpour","year":"2023","journal-title":"Avicenna J. Phytomed."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.2174\/1573406419666221130162512","article-title":"Prevention of oxidative stress and diseases by antioxidant supplementation","volume":"19","author":"Martemucci","year":"2023","journal-title":"Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1186\/s13065-018-0370-0","article-title":"Mutagenicity, cytotoxic and antioxidant activities of Ricinus communis different parts","volume":"12","author":"Abbas","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chem. Cent. J."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2071","DOI":"10.1007\/s12649-020-01164-5","article-title":"Valorization of Mexican Ricinus communis L. leaves as a source of minerals and antioxidant compounds","volume":"12","year":"2021","journal-title":"Waste Biomass Valorization"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1186\/s40199-016-0152-y","article-title":"Anti-inflammatory effects of Ricinus communis","volume":"24","author":"Ziaei","year":"2016","journal-title":"DARU J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_103","first-page":"951","article-title":"Anti-arthritic activity of Ricinus communis L. and Withania somnifera L. extracts in adjuvant-induced arthritic rats via modulating inflammatory mediators and subsiding oxidative stress","volume":"24","author":"Hussain","year":"2021","journal-title":"Iran. J. Basic Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_104","first-page":"557","article-title":"Unveiling the Antimicrobial Potential of Ricinus communis: A Comprehensive Review of Its Relevance to Surgical Site Infection (SSI) Pathogens","volume":"17","author":"Arya","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"686","DOI":"10.1080\/13102818.2018.1451778","article-title":"Anti-bacterial activity of Ricinus communis L. against bacterial pathogens Escherichia coli and Klebsiella oxytoca as evaluated by Transmission electron microscopy","volume":"32","author":"Hajrah","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Biotechnol. Equip."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suurbaar, J., Mosobil, R., and Donkor, A.M. (2017). Antimicrobial activity of Ricinus communis. BMC Res. Notes, 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-017-3001-2"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2018.11.013","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: Mechanisms and alternative therapeutic strategies","volume":"37","author":"Pang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Adv."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1007\/s12045-021-1135-y","article-title":"Chlorine and the Chemistry of Disinfectants: A Fascinating Journey\u201418th Century to the COVID Times","volume":"26","author":"Reddy","year":"2021","journal-title":"Resonance"},{"key":"ref_109","unstructured":"Mohammed, N.I., and Albozachri, J.M.K. (2025, August 12). Use of Iraqi Castor (Ricinus communis) Leaf Extract as Anti-Inflammatory in Treatment of Skin Wounds in Rabbits. Jinu. M, Thankamma. P. George, NA Balaram, Sujisha. SS 2. Profile of Burn Deaths: A Study Based on Postmortem Examination of Burn Cases at RNT. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/profile\/Haitham-Abdulhadi-2\/publication\/350124731_Estimation_of_Some_Genetic_and_Physiological_Variables_of_Iraqi_Desert_Snake_Cerastes_gasperettii_469\/links\/6052711a458515e834518b9e\/Estimation-of-Some-Genetic-and-Physiological-Variables-of-Iraqi-Desert-Snake-Cerastes-gasperettii-469.pdf#page=655."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40233","DOI":"10.4137\/LPI.S40233","article-title":"Castor oil: Properties, uses, and optimization of processing parameters in commercial production","volume":"9","author":"Patel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lipid Insights"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ashraf Ashfaq, M., Soma Sekhar Reddy, P., Anil Kumar, C., Selvaraj, V.M., and Dinesh Kumar, V. (2019). Ricin and RCA\u2014The enemies within castor (Ricinus communis L.): A perspective on their biogenesis, mechanism of action, detection methods and detoxification strategies. The Castor Bean Genome, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-97280-0_12"},{"key":"ref_112","first-page":"758","article-title":"Inhibitory property of aqueous extract of Ricinus communis leaves on proliferation of melanoma treated against A375 cell lines","volume":"3","author":"Shah","year":"2015","journal-title":"World J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Polito, L., Bortolotti, M., Battelli, M.G., Calafato, G., and Bolognesi, A. (2019). Ricin toxin review. Toxins, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins11060324"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.52711\/0974-360X.2022.00067","article-title":"Ricin in Castor Bean (Ricinus communis L.) Seeds: A Review on its anticancer activity and the role of cytotoxicity enhancers","volume":"15","author":"Herawati","year":"2022","journal-title":"Res. J. Pharm. Technol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14493","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-50769-x","article-title":"Ricinus communis L. fruit extract inhibits migration\/invasion, induces apoptosis in breast cancer cells and arrests tumour progression in vivo","volume":"9","author":"Majumder","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.18203\/2319-2003.ijbcp20160744","article-title":"Evaluation of hepatoprotective activity of aqueous extract of Ricinus communis in wistar rats","volume":"5","author":"Naveen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Basic Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6441","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.6441","article-title":"Potential antidiabetic effect of ethanolic and aqueous-ethanolic extracts of Ricinus communis leaves on streptozotocin-induced diabetes in rats","volume":"7","author":"Abdelgadir","year":"2019","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.4103\/1995-7645.228431","article-title":"Therapeutic role of Ricinus communis L. and its bioactive compounds in disease prevention and treatment","volume":"11","author":"Abdul","year":"2018","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Trop. Med."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1007\/s42452-024-05964-5","article-title":"A phytochemical and pharmacological review of Ricinus communis L.","volume":"6","author":"Abomughaid","year":"2024","journal-title":"Discov. Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20170384","DOI":"10.1590\/0103-8478cr20170384","article-title":"Antinociceptive activity of Ricinus communis seed\u2019s hydroethanolic extract on male Balb\/C mice","volume":"48","author":"Esfandyari","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ci\u00eancia Rural"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14008","DOI":"10.1002\/ep.14008","article-title":"A comprehensive review of castor oil-derived renewable and sustainable industrial products","volume":"42","author":"Singh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Prog. Sustain. Energy"},{"key":"ref_122","first-page":"225","article-title":"Sedative and antinociceptive activities of two new sesquiterpenes isolated from Ricinus communis","volume":"16","author":"Farooq","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chin. J. Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1016","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymdegradstab.2019.109016","article-title":"Castor oil-derived monomer ricinoleic acid based biodegradable unsaturated polyesters","volume":"170","author":"Rajalakshmi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Polym. Degrad. Stab."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1177\/0036850419859118","article-title":"Chemical modifications of castor oil: A review","volume":"102","author":"Ntsako","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Prog."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.38212\/2224-6614.3526","article-title":"Herbal nanoemulsions in cosmetic science: A comprehensive review of design, preparation, formulation, and characterization","volume":"32","author":"Iskandar","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Food Drug Anal."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Osorio-Gonz\u00e1lez, C.S., G\u00f3mez-Falcon, N., Sandoval-Salas, F., Saini, R., Brar, S.K., and Ram\u00edrez, A.A. (2020). Production of biodiesel from castor oil: A review. Energies, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/en13102467"},{"key":"ref_127","unstructured":"Brouwer, P. (2017). Turning the Aquatic Weed Azolla into a Sustainable Crop. [Ph.D. Dissertation, Utrecht University]."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carrino, L., Visconti, D., Fiorentino, N., and Fagnano, M. (2020). Biofuel production with castor bean: A win\u2013win strategy for marginal land. Agronomy, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy10111690"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1007\/s10098-016-1262-4","article-title":"Sustainability assessment of Ricinus communis biodiesel using LCA Approach","volume":"19","author":"Amouri","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clean. Technol. Environ. Policy"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bergman, J.A., and Kessler, M.R. (2015). Monomers and resulting polymers from biomass. Introduction to Chemicals From Biomass, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118714478.ch5"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1134\/S1560090415040132","article-title":"Novel applications of castor oil-based polyurethanes: A short review","volume":"57","author":"Shirke","year":"2015","journal-title":"Polym. Sci. Ser. B"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31269","DOI":"10.1007\/s13399-025-06884-z","article-title":"Enhanced catalytic performance and recycling of sulfate-impregnated ZSM-5 in the epoxidation of castor oil","volume":"15","author":"Addli","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biomass Convers. Biorefinery"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Esipovich, A.L., Kanakov, E.A., Charykova, T.A., Otopkova, K.V., Smirnov, M.A., Mityukova, Y.A., and Belousov, A.S. (2024). A comprehensive study on physicochemical properties of fatty acid esters derived from different vegetable oils and alcohols and their potential application. Energies, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/en17246407"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1109\/TDEI.2023.3331664","article-title":"Transesterification approaches to natural esters for transformer insulating fluids: A review","volume":"31","author":"Raymon","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3860","DOI":"10.1002\/er.7453","article-title":"Biolubricant production via esterification and transesterification processes: Current updates and perspectives","volume":"46","author":"Appiah","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Energy Res."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1111\/cxo.13148","article-title":"Therapeutic potential of castor oil in managing blepharitis, meibomian gland dysfunction and dry eye","volume":"104","author":"Sandford","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Optom."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.30574\/wjbphs.2022.9.2.0043","article-title":"Physicochemical and stability profile of castor oil emulsions stabilized using natural and synthetic emulsifiers","volume":"9","author":"Kolawole","year":"2022","journal-title":"World J. Biol. Pharm. Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shakoor, R., Hussain, N., Bashir, H., and Ashraf, M.H. (2024). Plant biomass materials in cosmetic application. Plant Biomass Applications, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-443-15465-2.00011-2"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.9734\/cjast\/2019\/v38i630448","article-title":"A Study of the Lipid Structure of Castor Seed Oil (Ricinus communis L.), Biodiesel and Its Characterization","volume":"38","author":"Bello","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. J. Appl. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oliva-Rodr\u00edguez, A.G., Salinas De Le\u00f3n, F., Morales-Mart\u00ednez, T.K., Rodr\u00edguez-De la Garza, J.A., Medina-Morales, M.A., Cruz-Requena, M., Neyra-Escobedo, G.A., and R\u00edos-Gonz\u00e1lez, L.J. (2025). Coproduction of Biodiesel and Bioethanol from Ricinus communis Seed Through an Integrated Process. Processes, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pr13092877"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.18596\/jotcsa.1019969","article-title":"Ricinus communis seed oils as a source of biodiesel; a renewable form of future energy","volume":"9","author":"Gebrehiwot","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Turk. Chem. Soc. Sect. A Chem."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14646","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-17390-x","article-title":"Synthesis and characterization of biopolyurethane crosslinked with castor oil-based hyperbranched polyols as polymeric solid\u2013solid phase change materials","volume":"12","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_143","first-page":"175","article-title":"Industrial applications of castor oil and its derivatives","volume":"85","author":"Mishra","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Ind. Chem."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1444","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0036-1588699","article-title":"Synthetic transformations for the valorization of fatty acid derivatives","volume":"49","author":"Fraile","year":"2017","journal-title":"Synthesis"},{"key":"ref_145","first-page":"233","article-title":"Castor oil as a natural resource for cosmetics: A review","volume":"43","author":"Rani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Cosmet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_146","first-page":"450","article-title":"Applications of castor oil in food and industrial sectors: A review","volume":"25","author":"Ghosh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Sci. Technol. Int."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, S., Srivastava, R., and Bauddh, K. (2025). Ricinus communis: An Abiotic Stress-Tolerant Crop for Reclamation of Wasteland Reclamation. Ricinus Communis: A Climate Resilient Commercial Crop for Sustainable Environment, Springer Nature.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-96-3224-4_8"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kheni, J., and Tomar, R.S. (2023). Nutraceutical usages and nutrigenomics of Castor. Compendium of Crop Genome Designing for Nutraceuticals, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-19-4169-6_18"},{"key":"ref_149","first-page":"1221","article-title":"Climate smart agriculture","volume":"37","author":"Ghosh","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Environ. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anwar, S., Naseem, S., Karimi, S., Asi, M.R., Akrem, A., and Ali, Z. (2021). Bioherbicidal activity and metabolic profiling of potent allelopathic plant fractions against major weeds of wheat\u2014Way forward to lower the risk of synthetic herbicides. Front. Plant Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2021.632390"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lopes, A.M., Ribeiro, L.K., Cogo, M.R.D.M., Frescura, L.M., da Rosa, M.B., Schulz, A., Mayer, F.D., Abaide, E.R., Tres, M.V., and Zabot, G.L. (2025). Ricinus communis L. Leaf Extracts as a Sustainable Alternative for Weed Management. Sustainability, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/su17156942"},{"key":"ref_152","first-page":"438","article-title":"Allelopathic effect of Ricinus communis L. and Vitex negundo L. on morphological attributes of invasive alien weed: Cassia uniflora Mill","volume":"3","author":"Ramgunde","year":"2016","journal-title":"IRA-Int. J. Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1007\/s10493-017-0165-3","article-title":"Essential oils of aromatic Egyptian plants repel nymphs of the tick Ixodes ricinus (Acari: Ixodidae)","volume":"73","author":"Azeem","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exp. Appl. Acarol."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.3329\/bjvm.v16i1.37380","article-title":"In-vitro efficacy of verenda (Ricinus communis) leaves extract against ticks in cattle","volume":"16","author":"Islam","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bangladesh J. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.24190\/ISSN2564-615X\/2017\/02.01","article-title":"Ricinus communis L. (Castor bean), a potential multi-purpose environmental crop for improved and integrated phytoremediation","volume":"1","author":"Kiran","year":"2017","journal-title":"EuroBiotech J."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nand, S., Neeraj, A., Patel, A., Shukla, S., and Srivastava, P.K. (2025). Plant and Environment Interaction: Special Reference to Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals Using Ricinus communis L.. Ricinus Communis: A Climate Resilient Commercial Crop for Sustainable Environment, Springer Nature.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-96-3224-4_1"},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138377","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2023.138377","article-title":"The root-associated Fusarium isolated based on fungal community analysis improves phytoremediation efficiency of Ricinus communis L. in multi metal-contaminated soils","volume":"324","author":"Yao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17359","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-020-08319-w","article-title":"Phytoremediation potential of castor (Ricinus communis L.) in the soils of the abandoned copper mine in Northern Oman: Implications for arid regions","volume":"27","author":"Palanivel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549863","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/549863","article-title":"Evaluation of Ricinus communis L. for the phytoremediation of polluted soil with organochlorine pesticides","volume":"2015","author":"Rissato","year":"2015","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jha, A.B., Misra, A.N., and Sharma, P. (2017). Phytoremediation of heavy metal-contaminated soil using bioenergy crops. Phytoremediation Potential of Bioenergy Plants, Springer Nature.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-10-3084-0_3"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1590\/1678-775720150204","article-title":"Antimicrobial activity of complete denture cleanser solutions based on sodium hypochlorite and Ricinus communis\u2013a randomized clinical study","volume":"23","author":"Salles","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Oral Sci."},{"key":"ref_162","unstructured":"Nisargandha, M. Clinical evaluation of Nitya Virechana in Hepato cellular Jaundice\u2013A Case Study. Int. J. Res. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_163","first-page":"47","article-title":"A systematic review on phytochemical constituents and pharmacological activities Ricinus communis plant","volume":"17","author":"Megharaj","year":"2025","journal-title":"Res. J. Pharmacol. Pharmacodyn."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procbio.2021.03.012","article-title":"Structure-based experimental and theoretical analysis of Ricinus communis for their HepG2 human carcinoma cell line inhibitors","volume":"104","author":"Shafiq","year":"2021","journal-title":"Process Biochem."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5594252","DOI":"10.1155\/bmri\/5594252","article-title":"Ricin as a Biothreat Agent: From Molecular Mechanisms to Clinical Toxicology, Forensic Aspects, and Risk Mitigation","volume":"2026","author":"Pohanka","year":"2026","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1002\/9783527830756.ch4","article-title":"Castor oil (Ricinus communis)","volume":"Volime 1","author":"Fatimah","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biorefinery of Oil Producing Plants for Value-Added Products"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rotolo, A., Pes, M., Solarino, G., Roda, E., Schicchi, A., Lonati, D., Uberti, F., Locatelli, C.A., and Merli, D. (2025). From Bench to Bedside: Validation of an ELISA Analytical Method for the Determination of Ricin in Biological Samples and Clinical Data on Related Intoxications. Chemosensors, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/chemosensors13120414"}],"container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8247\/19\/8\/1258\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]],"date-time":"2026-08-10T15:15:05Z","timestamp":1786374905000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8247\/19\/8\/1258"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]]},"references-count":167,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["ph19081258"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ph19081258","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8247"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8247","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]]}}}