{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T09:07:13Z","timestamp":1789031233964,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,6]],"date-time":"2026-09-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788652800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Methylphenidate is one of the most widely prescribed psychostimulants for attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder, with increasing global use. Its pharmacological action on dopaminergic pathways raises concerns regarding its addictive potential. This systematic review aims to synthesize current evidence on the addictive properties of methylphenidate, including misuse, abuse, tolerance, craving, and withdrawal symptoms. Methods: This systematic review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA guidelines and registered in the PROSPERO database under registration number CRD420261303803. Literature searches were performed in PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar without time restrictions. Studies assessing behavioral, subjective, or neurobiological indicators of methylphenidate addiction were included. Eligible designs comprised randomized controlled trials, observational studies, neuroimaging studies, case reports, and relevant preclinical models. Study quality was assessed using the EPHPP tool. A total of 35 studies were included in the qualitative synthesis. Results: The evidence demonstrated that methylphenidate produced measurable reinforcing effects and subjective drug liking, which were found to be closely related to craving and to depend on dose, pharmacokinetics, and route of administration. Rapid increases in brain dopamine levels, particularly following non-oral or high-dose administration, were associated with higher abuse potential. Misuse was observed to be more common among individuals without ADHD and was often motivated by cognitive enhancement rather than euphoria. In contrast, appropriately monitored therapeutic use was associated with a low observed risk of substance use disorders. Pharmacodynamic tolerance was identified in a subset of patients, whereas a classical withdrawal syndrome was not consistently observed and was generally limited to symptom recurrence. Conclusions: Methylphenidate exhibits measurable addictive potential. However, its clinical significance is context-dependent. Under therapeutic conditions, the risk of addiction is low, whereas it increases substantially with non-medical use, high doses, and alternative routes of administration. These findings support careful patient selection, preference for extended-release formulations, and monitoring of misuse risk.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ph19091409","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]],"date-time":"2026-09-07T08:07:06Z","timestamp":1788768426000},"page":"1409","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Addictive Potential of Methylphenidate: A Systematic Review of Human and Preclinical Behavioral, Clinical and Neurobiological Evidence"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-0583-6661","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rafa\u0142","family":"Bie\u015b","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department and Clinic of Psychiatric Rehabilitation, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Doctoral School, Medical University of Silesia, Zio\u0142owa 45\/47, 40-635 Katowice, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adam","family":"Chabrzyk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Psychiatry and Psychology, Penta Hospitals International, 1000-Lecia 13, 32-300 Olkusz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katarzyna","family":"Zborowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Community Psychiatry and Psychology, Collegium Medicum, WSB University, Cieplaka 1c, 41-300 D\u0105browa G\u00f3rnicza, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5984-3358","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Krzysztof","family":"Krysta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department and Clinic of Psychiatric Rehabilitation, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia, Zio\u0142owa 45\/47, 40-635 Katowice, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marek","family":"Krzystanek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Community Psychiatry and Psychology, Collegium Medicum, WSB University, Cieplaka 1c, 41-300 D\u0105browa G\u00f3rnicza, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ps.20240574","article-title":"Recent Trends in Medication Treatment for Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder","volume":"76","author":"Huskamp","year":"2025","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Serv."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"100314","article-title":"Prescribed Stimulant Medications: Trends in the Last Decade, Pre and Post COVID-19 Response","volume":"11","author":"Kim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Explor. Res. Clin. Soc. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2025.0054","article-title":"Prescription Stimulant Use, Misuse, and Use Disorder Among US Adults Aged 18 to 64 Years","volume":"82","author":"Han","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1007\/s13318-023-00873-1","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics of Long-Acting Methylphenidate: Formulation Differences, Bioequivalence, Interchangeability","volume":"49","author":"Moharram","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Drug Metab. Pharmacokinet."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1089\/cap.2018.0122","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics of HLD200, a Delayed-Release and Extended-Release Methylphenidate: Evaluation of Dose Proportionality, Food Effect, Multiple-Dose Modeling, and Comparative Bioavailability with Immediate-Release Methylphenidate in Healthy Adults","volume":"29","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bie\u015b, R., Fojcik, J., Warchala, A., Tr\u0119dzbor, B., Krysta, K., Piekarska-Bugiel, K., and Krzystanek, M. (2023). The Risk of Methylphenidate Pharmacotherapy for Adults with ADHD. Pharmaceuticals, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph16091292"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6408","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-41972-6","article-title":"Neural Circuit Selective for Fast but Not Slow Dopamine Increases in Drug Reward","volume":"14","author":"Manza","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116241","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2024.116241","article-title":"Tolerance, Interdose withdrawal Symptoms, and Craving Predict Prescription Opioid-Use Disorder Severity in Chronic Pain Patients: A Three-Wave Prospective Study","volume":"342","author":"Carballo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Handelman, K., and Sumiya, F. (2022). Tolerance to Stimulant Medication for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Literature Review and Case Report. Brain Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci12080959"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093351","article-title":"The Role of Craving in Substance Use Disorders: Theoretical and Methodological Issues","volume":"12","author":"Sayette","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9066","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1819978116","article-title":"Compulsive Drug Use Is Associated with Imbalance of Orbitofrontal- and Prelimbic-Striatal Circuits in Punishment-Resistant Individuals","volume":"116","author":"Hu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1097\/ADM.0000000000001563","article-title":"DSM-5 Stimulant Use Disorder Severity, Stimulant Craving, and Other Clinical Characteristics Based on Stimulant Type (Cocaine, Methamphetamine, Nonmedical Prescription Stimulants, or Polystimulants)","volume":"20","author":"Truchan","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Addict. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1002\/syn.10038","article-title":"Relationship between Blockade of Dopamine Transporters by Oral Methylphenidate and the Increases in Extracellular Dopamine: Therapeutic Implications","volume":"43","author":"Volkow","year":"2002","journal-title":"Synapse"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1995.03950180042006","article-title":"Is Methylphenidate Like Cocaine?: Studies on Their Pharmacokinetics and Distribution in the Human Brain","volume":"52","author":"Volkow","year":"1995","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.1080\/00325481.2016.1218259","article-title":"Safety and Efficacy Considerations Due to Misuse of Extended-Release Formulations of Stimulant Medications","volume":"128","author":"Jain","year":"2016","journal-title":"Postgrad. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3495","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0407737102","article-title":"Amphetamine Induces Dopamine Efflux through a Dopamine Transporter Channel","volume":"102","author":"Kahlig","year":"2005","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2018.02.001","article-title":"The Pharmacology of Amphetamine and Methylphenidate: Relevance to the Neurobiology of Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder and Other Psychiatric Comorbidities","volume":"87","author":"Faraone","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"904","DOI":"10.1556\/2006.2024.00060","article-title":"Long-Term Changes on Behavioral Addictions Symptoms among Adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Treated with Methylphenidate","volume":"13","author":"Grassi","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Behav. Addict."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"n160","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n160","article-title":"PRISMA 2020 Explanation and Elaboration: Updated Guidance and Exemplars for Reporting Systematic Reviews","volume":"372","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1524-475X.2004.04006.x","article-title":"A Process for Systematically Reviewing the Literature: Providing the Research Evidence for Public Health Nursing Interventions","volume":"1","author":"Thomas","year":"2004","journal-title":"Worldviews Evid. Based Nurs."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2753.2010.01516.x","article-title":"Assessment of Study Quality for Systematic Reviews: A Comparison of the Cochrane Collaboration Risk of Bias Tool and the Effective Public Health Practice Project Quality Assessment Tool: Methodological Research","volume":"18","author":"Stiles","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Eval. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881104047281","article-title":"Reinforcing, Subject-Rated, Performance and Physiological Effects of Methylphenidate and d-Amphetamine in Stimulant Abusing Humans","volume":"18","author":"Stoops","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1476","DOI":"10.1177\/0091270007308615","article-title":"Assessment of Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamic Effects Related to Abuse Potential of a Unique Oral Osmotic-Controlled Extended-Release Methylphenidate Formulation in Humans","volume":"47","author":"Parasrampuria","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2008.01.008","article-title":"Abuse Liability Assessment of Atomoxetine in a Drug-Abusing Population","volume":"95","author":"Jasinski","year":"2008","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.3810\/pgm.2012.01.2529","article-title":"Importance of Pharmacokinetic Profile and Timing of Coadministration of Short\u2013 and Long\u2013Acting Formulations of Methylphenidate on Patterns of Subjective Responses and Abuse Potential","volume":"124","author":"Spencer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Postgrad. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1097\/JCP.0b013e3182217a50","article-title":"Absence of Psychostimulant Effects of a Supratherapeutic Dose of Tianeptine: A Placebo-Controlled Study Versus Methylphenidate in Young Healthy Volunteers","volume":"31","author":"Bernard","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1237","DOI":"10.1080\/03007995.2022.2076474","article-title":"Oral, Intranasal, and Intravenous Abuse Potential of Serdexmethylphenidate, a Novel Prodrug of d-Methylphenidate","volume":"38","author":"Shram","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Res. Opin."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1782","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2006.04.192","article-title":"Effects of Expectation on the Brain Metabolic Responses to Methylphenidate and to Its Placebo in Non-Drug Abusing Subjects","volume":"32","author":"Volkow","year":"2006","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.156.1.19","article-title":"Association of Methylphenidate-Induced Craving with Changes in Right Striato-Orbitofrontal Metabolism in Cocaine Abusers: Implications in Addiction","volume":"156","author":"Volkow","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.163.3.387","article-title":"PET Study Examining Pharmacokinetics, Detection and Likeability, and Dopamine Transporter Receptor Occupancy of Short- and Long-Acting Oral Methylphenidate","volume":"163","author":"Spencer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/S0009-9236(99)70038-X","article-title":"Acute Tolerance to Methylphenidate in the Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children","volume":"66","author":"Swanson","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, G.-J., Volkow, N.D., Wigal, T., Kollins, S.H., Newcorn, J.H., Telang, F., Logan, J., Jayne, M., Wong, C.T., and Han, H. (2013). Long-Term Stimulant Treatment Affects Brain Dopamine Transporter Level in Patients with Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0063023"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1177\/026988110101500202","article-title":"Effect of Repeated Methylphenidate Administration on Presynaptic Dopamine and Behaviour in Young Adult Rats","volume":"15","author":"Sproson","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1584","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1460-9568.2003.02892.x","article-title":"Repeated Methylphenidate Treatment in Adolescent Rats Alters Gene Regulation in the Striatum","volume":"18","author":"Brandon","year":"2003","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2915","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0813179106","article-title":"Methylphenidate-Induced Dendritic Spine Formation and DeltaFosB Expression in Nucleus Accumbens","volume":"106","author":"Kim","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-026-04712-y","article-title":"Repeated Oral Methylphenidate Administration Evokes Changes in Brain Plasticity Proteins in Juvenile Wistar Kyoto Rats: Evidence for Sex-Related Differences","volume":"51","author":"Costa","year":"2026","journal-title":"Neurochem. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.2147\/PRBM.S445719","article-title":"Chronic Methylphenidate Effects on Brain Gene Expression: An Exploratory Review","volume":"17","author":"Klein","year":"2024","journal-title":"Psychol. Res. Behav. Manag."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ps.53.1.102","article-title":"Treatment of ADHD When Tolerance to Methylphenidate Develops","volume":"53","author":"Ross","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Serv."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1089\/cap.2004.14.542","article-title":"ADouble-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Withdrawal Trial of Dexmethylphenidate Hydrochloride in Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder","volume":"14","author":"Arnold","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1089\/cap.2014.0172","article-title":"Painful Muscle Cramps Possibly Associated with Withdrawal from Methylphenidate","volume":"26","author":"Coskun","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1097\/ADM.0000000000000279","article-title":"Dystonia in Methylphenidate Withdrawal: A Case Report","volume":"11","author":"Daigre","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Addict. Med."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2003.12.039","article-title":"Stuttering Priapism Associated with Withdrawal from Sustained-Release Methylphenidate","volume":"144","author":"Schwartz","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dos Santos Pereira, M., Sathler, M.F., Valli, T.D.R., Marques, R.S., Ventura, A.L.M., Peccinalli, N.R., Fraga, M.C., Manh\u00e3es, A.C., and Kubrusly, R. (2015). Long Withdrawal of Methylphenidate Induces a Differential Response of the Dopaminergic System and Increases Sensitivity to Cocaine in the Prefrontal Cortex of Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0141249"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1089\/cap.2011.0014","article-title":"Subjective Effects, Misuse, and Adverse Effects of Osmotic-Release Methylphenidate Treatment in Adolescent Substance Abusers with Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder","volume":"21","author":"Winhusen","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1095","DOI":"10.1081\/JA-120038031","article-title":"The Use, Misuse and Diversion of Prescription Stimulants Among Middle and High School Students","volume":"39","author":"McCabe","year":"2004","journal-title":"Subst. Use Misuse"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1521-0391.2011.00158.x","article-title":"A Case Report of Concerta Misuse in a Patient with Comorbid Substance Use Disorder and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Concerta Misuse Case Report","volume":"20","author":"Rizkallah","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Addict."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1521-0391.2010.00078.x","article-title":"Stimulant Formulation and Motivation for Nonmedical Use of Prescription Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder Medications in a College-Aged Population","volume":"19","author":"Upadhyaya","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Addict."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1080\/09084280701509083","article-title":"Symptom Exaggeration by College Adults in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Learning Disorder Assessments","volume":"14","author":"Sullivan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1016\/j.acn.2008.05.003","article-title":"The Relationship of Malingering Test Failure to Self-Reported Symptoms and Neuropsychological Findings in Adults Referred for ADHD Evaluation","volume":"23","author":"Suhr","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1186\/1747-597X-2-32","article-title":"The Nonmedical Use of Prescription ADHD Medications: Results from a National Internet Panel","volume":"2","author":"Novak","year":"2007","journal-title":"Subst. Abuse Treat. Prev. Policy"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1097\/01.chi.0000199027.68828.b3","article-title":"Characteristics of Adolescents and Young Adults with ADHD Who Divert or Misuse Their Prescribed Medications","volume":"45","author":"Wilens","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsat.2012.07.001","article-title":"Predictors of Treatment Response in Adolescents with Comorbid Substance Use Disorder and Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder","volume":"44","author":"Tamm","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Subst. Abuse Treat."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101524","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2022.101524","article-title":"Trends in Characteristics of the Recipients of New Prescription Stimulants between Years 2010 and 2020 in the United States: An Observational Cohort Study","volume":"50","author":"Brumbaugh","year":"2022","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2015.10.029","article-title":"Assessment of Human Abuse Potential of Dasotraline Compared to Methylphenidate and Placebo in Recreational Stimulant Users","volume":"159","author":"Koblan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1080\/08897070209511486","article-title":"Megadose Intranasal Methylphenidate (Ritalin) Abuse in Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder","volume":"23","author":"Coetzee","year":"2002","journal-title":"Subst. Abuse"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1016\/j.therap.2016.10.002","article-title":"Sympt\u00f4mes psychiatriques aigus lors d\u2019injections intraveineuses de m\u00e9thylph\u00e9nidate: \u00c0 propos d\u2019un cas","volume":"72","author":"Micallef","year":"2017","journal-title":"Therapies"},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"301","article-title":"Ekbom syndrome in an intravenous methylphenidate abuser","volume":"24","year":"2012","journal-title":"Adicciones"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1097\/ADM.0000000000000115","article-title":"Prevalent Intravenous Abuse of Methylphenidate Among Treatment-Seeking Patients with Substance Abuse Disorders: A Descriptive Population-Based Study","volume":"9","author":"Bjarnadottir","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Addict. Med."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1016\/j.therap.2022.03.006","article-title":"Augmentation de l\u2019abus de M\u00e9thylph\u00e9nidate: Rep\u00e9rage et Profils Sur 13 Ann\u00e9es","volume":"77","author":"Guerra","year":"2022","journal-title":"Therapies"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1159\/000439273","article-title":"Patterns of Methylphenidate Use and Assessment of Its Abuse among the General Population and Individuals with Drug Dependence","volume":"22","author":"Frauger","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. Addict. Res."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"878","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.12164","article-title":"Stimulant ADHD Medication and Risk for Substance Abuse","volume":"55","author":"Chang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"}],"container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8247\/19\/9\/1409\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T08:16:44Z","timestamp":1789028204000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8247\/19\/9\/1409"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,6]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["ph19091409"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ph19091409","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8247"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8247","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,6]]}}}