{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T00:01:51Z","timestamp":1773360111854,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":217,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2010,8,26]],"date-time":"2010-08-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1282780800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cogent evidence shows that cannabis plays a variable role on behavioral regulation and the pathophysiology of most psychiatric conditions. Accordingly, cannabis has been alternatively shown to exacerbate or ameliorate mental symptoms, depending on its composition and route of consumption, as well as specific individual and contextual characteristics. The vulnerability to the psychological effects of cannabis is influenced by a complex constellation of genetic and environmental factors. In the present article, we will review the current evidence on the pharmacological, individual and situational factors that have been documented to affect the behavioral and psychiatric effects of cannabinoids.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ph3092799","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,8,26]],"date-time":"2010-08-26T11:20:09Z","timestamp":1282821609000},"page":"2799-2820","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Vulnerability Factors for the Psychiatric and Behavioral Effects of Cannabis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"3","author":[{"given":"Marco","family":"Bortolato","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA"},{"name":"Tourette Syndrome Center, University of Cagliari, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Valentina","family":"Bini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tourette Syndrome Center, University of Cagliari, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Neuroscience \u201cBernard B. Brodie\u201d, University of Cagliari, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Simone","family":"Tambaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA"},{"name":"Neuroscience PharmaNess, S.C.A.R.L., Edificio 5, Parco Scientifico e Tecnologico della Sardegna, Localit\u00e0 Piscinamanna, Pula, Cagliari, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,8,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2009). Results from the 2008 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings, Office of Applied Studies. NSDUH Series H-36, HHS Publication No. SMA 09-4434."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1655","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1360-0443.2000.951116556.x","article-title":"Increased use of marijuana and other illicit drugs at US colleges in the 1990s: results of three national surveys","volume":"95","author":"Lee","year":"2000","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-842X.2000.tb01605.x","article-title":"Cohort trends in the age of initiation of drug use in Australia","volume":"24","author":"Degenhardt","year":"2000","journal-title":"Aust. N.Z.J. Public. Health"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.184.2.110","article-title":"Causal association between cannabis and psychosis: examination of the evidence","volume":"184","author":"Arseneault","year":"2004","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2004.00683.x","article-title":"Cannabis use and the risk of later schizophrenia: a review","volume":"99","author":"Smit","year":"2004","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881105049040","article-title":"Cannabis as a risk factor for psychosis: systematic review","volume":"19","author":"Semple","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881105051541","article-title":"Cannabinoids in bipolar affective disorder: a review and discussion of their therapeutic potential","volume":"19","author":"Ashton","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(07)61162-3","article-title":"Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: a systematic review","volume":"370","author":"Moore","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1251","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2007.01875.x","article-title":"Does cannabis use predict the first incidence of mood and anxiety disorders in the adult population?","volume":"102","author":"Monshouwer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/16.1.69","article-title":"Acute effects of drug abuse in schizophrenic patients: clinical observations and patients' self-reports","volume":"16","author":"Dixon","year":"1990","journal-title":"Schizophr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.148.2.224","article-title":"Drug abuse in schizophrenic patients: clinical correlates and reasons for use","volume":"148","author":"Dixon","year":"1991","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1007\/s00406-005-0582-x","article-title":"Schizophrenia and depression","volume":"255","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291706009688","article-title":"Testing the self-medication hypothesis of depression and aggression in cannabis-dependent subjects","volume":"37","author":"Arendt","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2005.09.011","article-title":"Chemical constituents of marijuana: the complex mixture of natural cannabinoids","volume":"78","author":"Slade","year":"2005","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tips.2009.07.006","article-title":"Non-psychotropic plant cannabinoids: new therapeutic opportunities from an ancient herb","volume":"30","author":"Izzo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Trends Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1646","DOI":"10.1021\/ja01062a046","article-title":"Isolation, structure and partial synthesis of an active constituent of hashish","volume":"86","author":"Gaoni","year":"1964","journal-title":"J. Amer. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbb.2010.03.004","article-title":"Antidepressant-like effect of Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol and other cannabinoids isolated from Cannabis sativa","volume":"95","author":"Ivey","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1590\/S1516-44462008000300015","article-title":"Cannabidiol: from an inactive cannabinoid to a drug with wide spectrum of action","volume":"30","author":"Zuardi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Psiquiatr."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1002\/ptr.2625","article-title":"Cannabidiol in medicine: a review of its therapeutic potential in CNS disorders","volume":"23","author":"Scuderi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Phytother. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1038\/346561a0","article-title":"Structure of a cannabinoid receptor and functional expression of the cloned cDNA","volume":"346","author":"Matsuda","year":"1990","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1038\/365061a0","article-title":"Molecular characterization of a peripheral receptor for cannabinoids","volume":"365","author":"Munro","year":"1993","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1932","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.87.5.1932","article-title":"Cannabinoid receptor localization in brain","volume":"87","author":"Herkenham","year":"1990","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.11-02-00563.1991","article-title":"Characterization and localization of cannabinoid receptors in rat brain: a quantitative in vitro autoradiographic study","volume":"11","author":"Herkenham","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/S0306-4522(96)00428-9","article-title":"Cannabinoid receptors in the human brain: a detailed anatomical and quantitative autoradiographic study on the fetal neonatal and adult human brain","volume":"77","author":"Glass","year":"1997","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9506","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.21-23-09506.2001","article-title":"Distribution of CB1 cannabinoid receptors in the amygdala and their role in the control of GABAergic transmission","volume":"21","author":"Katona","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1016\/S0028-3908(02)00157-0","article-title":"Pharmacological separation of cannabinoid sensitive receptors on hippocampal excitatory and inhibitory fibers","volume":"43","author":"Hajos","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1432-1033.1995.tb20780.x","article-title":"Expression of central and peripheral cannabinoid receptors in human immune tissues and leukocyte subpopulations","volume":"232","author":"Mary","year":"1995","journal-title":"Eur. J. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1115740","article-title":"Identification and functional characterization of brainstem cannabinoid CB2 receptors","volume":"310","author":"Duncan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2005.11.035","article-title":"Cannabinoid CB2 receptors: immunohistochemical localization in rat brain","volume":"1071","author":"Gong","year":"2006","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5794","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0372-06.2006","article-title":"Cannabinoid receptor type 1 located on presynaptic terminals of principal neurons in the forebrain controls glutamatergic synaptic transmission","volume":"26","author":"Domenici","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2991","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.4872-05.2006","article-title":"The CB1 cannabinoid receptor is the major cannabinoid receptor at excitatory presynaptic sites in the hippocampus and cerebellum","volume":"26","author":"Kawamura","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1159\/000100778","article-title":"Neuropsychobiological evidence for the functional presence and expression of cannabinoid CB2 receptors in the brain","volume":"54","author":"Onaivi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neuropsychobiology"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"944","DOI":"10.1002\/syn.20569","article-title":"Postsynaptic localization of CB2 cannabinoid receptors in the rat hippocampus","volume":"62","author":"Brusco","year":"2008","journal-title":"Synapse"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2556","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1999.82.5.2556","article-title":"Evidence for endogenous excitatory amino acids as mediators in DSI of GABA(A)ergic transmission in hippocampal CA1","volume":"82","author":"Morishita","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1038\/35069076","article-title":"Endogenous cannabinoids mediate retrograde signalling at hippocampal synapses","volume":"410","author":"Wilson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1016\/S0896-6273(01)00247-1","article-title":"Endogenous cannabinoids mediate retrograde signals from depolarized postsynaptic neurons to presynaptic terminals","volume":"29","author":"Maejima","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"RC188","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.21-24-j0003.2001","article-title":"Metabotropic glutamate receptors drive the endocannabinoid system in hippocampus","volume":"21","author":"Varma","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1177\/1073858406296716","article-title":"Endocannabinoids and synaptic function in the CNS","volume":"13","author":"Hashimotodani","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuroscientist"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3239","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1460-9568.2000.00217.x","article-title":"Cannabinoids inhibit hippocampal GABAergic transmission and network oscillations","volume":"12","author":"Katona","year":"2000","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/S0009-3084(02)00151-2","article-title":"Dimerization of G protein-coupled receptors: CB1 cannabinoid receptors as an example","volume":"121","author":"Westenbroek","year":"2002","journal-title":"Chem. Phys. Lipids"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-26573-2_10","article-title":"Distribution of cannabinoid receptors in the central and peripheral nervous system","volume":"168","author":"Mackie","year":"2005","journal-title":"Handb. Exp. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1254\/jphs.08244FP","article-title":"mu-Opioid receptor forms a functional heterodimer with cannabinoid CB1 receptor: electrophysiological and FRET assay analysis","volume":"108","author":"Hojo","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1946","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1470919","article-title":"Isolation and structure of a brain constituent that binds to the cannabinoid receptor","volume":"258","author":"Devane","year":"1992","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-2952(95)00109-D","article-title":"Identification of an endogenous 2-monoglyceride, present in canine gut, that binds to cannabinoid receptors","volume":"50","author":"Mechoulam","year":"1995","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1006\/bbrc.1995.2437","article-title":"2-Arachidonoylglycerol: a possible endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligand in brain","volume":"215","author":"Sugiura","year":"1995","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"686","DOI":"10.1038\/372686a0","article-title":"Formation and inactivation of endogenous cannabinoid anandamide in central neurons","volume":"372","author":"Fontana","year":"1994","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1226","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.17-04-01226.1997","article-title":"Occurrence and biosynthesis of endogenous cannabinoid precursor, N-arachidonoyl phosphatidylethanolamine, in rat brain","volume":"17","author":"Cadas","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1038\/nn832","article-title":"Postsynaptic endocannabinoid release is critical to long-term depression in the striatum","volume":"5","author":"Gerdeman","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4346","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.22-11-04346.2002","article-title":"Role of p\/q-Ca2+ channels in metabotropic glutamate receptor 2\/3-dependent presynaptic long-term depression at nucleus accumbens synapses","volume":"22","author":"Robbe","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1016\/S0896-6273(03)00476-8","article-title":"Neocortical LTD via coincident activation of presynaptic NMDA and cannabinoid receptors","volume":"39","author":"Sjostrom","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1196","DOI":"10.1124\/mol.105.013961","article-title":"Stimulation of endocannabinoid formation in brain slice cultures through activation of group I metabotropic glutamate receptors","volume":"68","author":"Jung","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1262","article-title":"Inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 potentiates retrograde endocannabinoid effects in hippocampus","volume":"7","author":"Kim","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1139","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1521","article-title":"Selective inhibition of 2-AG hydrolysis enhances endocannabinoid signaling in hippocampus","volume":"8","author":"Makara","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1038\/7268","article-title":"Dopamine activation of endogenous cannabinoid signaling in dorsal striatum","volume":"2","author":"Giuffrida","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18620","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0509591102","article-title":"Antidepressant-like activity and modulation of brain monoaminergic transmission by blockade of anandamide hydrolysis","volume":"102","author":"Gobbi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2385","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-9568.2006.04759.x","article-title":"Cannabinoids modulate spontaneous neuronal activity and evoked inhibition of locus coeruleus noradrenergic neurons","volume":"23","author":"Muntoni","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1159\/000126646","article-title":"Effect of the brain constituent anandamide, a cannabinoid receptor agonist, on the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis in the rat","volume":"59","author":"Weidenfeld","year":"1994","journal-title":"Neuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-6147(99)01339-5","article-title":"Pharmacological and biochemical interactions between opioids and cannabinoids","volume":"20","author":"Manzanares","year":"1999","journal-title":"Trends Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-3940(01)01591-9","article-title":"Activation of CB1 cannabinoid receptors in rat hippocampal slices inhibits potassium-evoked cholecystokinin release, a possible mechanism contributing to the spatial memory defects produced by cannabinoids","volume":"301","author":"Beinfeld","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1460-9568.2000.00929.x","article-title":"Reduction of stress-induced analgesia but not of exogenous opioid effects in mice lacking CB1 receptors","volume":"12","author":"Valverde","year":"2000","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1146","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.22-03-01146.2002","article-title":"Motivational effects of cannabinoids are mediated by mu-opioid and kappa-opioid receptors","volume":"22","author":"Ghozland","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-3806(02)00306-1","article-title":"Antinociceptive, behavioural and neuroendocrine effects of CP 55,940 in young rats","volume":"136","author":"Romero","year":"2002","journal-title":"Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1002\/hipo.20647","article-title":"Endogenous cannabinoid signaling is required for voluntary exercise-induced enhancement of progenitor cell proliferation in the hippocampus","volume":"20","author":"Hill","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hippocampus"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1369-1600.2008.00105.x","article-title":"The pharmacology of the endocannabinoid system: functional and structural interactions with other neurotransmitter systems and their repercussions in behavioral addiction","volume":"13","author":"Moreno","year":"2008","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Atha, M.J., and Blanchard, S. (1999). IDMU publications."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nahas, G., Sutin, K.M., Harvey, D.J., and Agurell, S. (1999). Marihuana and Medicine, Humana Press.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-59259-710-9"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1360-0443.1998.9368375.x","article-title":"Long-term cannabis use: characteristics of users in an Australian rural area","volume":"93","author":"Reilly","year":"1998","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1043","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1360-0443.1999.94710439.x","article-title":"Substance use among young people: the relationship between perceived functions and intentions","volume":"94","author":"Boys","year":"1999","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-6997(25)06862-0","article-title":"Health aspects of cannabis","volume":"38","author":"Hollister","year":"1986","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/S0376-8716(96)01277-X","article-title":"A community survey of adverse effects of cannabis use","volume":"42","author":"Thomas","year":"1996","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1611","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(98)05021-1","article-title":"Adverse effects of cannabis","volume":"352","author":"Hall","year":"1998","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1195","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.325.7374.1195","article-title":"Cannabis use and mental health in young people: cohort study","volume":"325","author":"Patton","year":"2002","journal-title":"BMJ."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1080\/09595230310001613976","article-title":"Being stoned: a review of self-reported cannabis effects","volume":"22","author":"Green","year":"2003","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Rev."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-1781(03)00052-0","article-title":"Cannabis use and anxiety in daily life: a naturalistic investigation in a non-clinical population","volume":"118","author":"Tournier","year":"2003","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1002\/hup.560","article-title":"Comorbid cannabis use and panic disorder: short term and long term follow-up study","volume":"19","author":"Dannon","year":"2004","journal-title":"Hum. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1558","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.npp.1300496","article-title":"The psychotomimetic effects of intravenous delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in healthy individuals: implications for psychosis","volume":"29","author":"Perry","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"5","article-title":"Two cases of \"cannabis acute psychosis\" following the administration of oral cannabis","volume":"1","author":"Favrat","year":"2005","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.178.2.116","article-title":"Psychiatric effects of cannabis","volume":"178","author":"Johns","year":"2001","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1974.01760070014002","article-title":"Psychotic reactions following cannabis use in East Indians","volume":"30","author":"Chopra","year":"1974","journal-title":"Arch Gen Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1016\/0091-3057(91)90382-C","article-title":"Effects of long-term cannabis use on selective attention: an event-related potential study","volume":"40","author":"Solowij","year":"1991","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2119","DOI":"10.1016\/0024-3205(95)00197-E","article-title":"Do cognitive impairments recover following cessation of cannabis use?","volume":"56","author":"Solowij","year":"1995","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2004.05.009","article-title":"The good and the bad effects of (-) trans-delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Delta 9-THC) on humans","volume":"44","author":"Carlini","year":"2004","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S31","DOI":"10.1590\/S1516-44462010000500006","article-title":"Cognitive abnormalities and cannabis use","volume":"32","author":"Solowij","year":"2010","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Psiquiatr."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"934","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3565(25)20212-9","article-title":"Smoked marijuana effects on tobacco cigarette smoking behavior","volume":"252","author":"Kelly","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"56","article-title":"Exogenous factors in panic disorder: clinical and research implications","volume":"49","author":"Uhde","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1002\/hup.1048","article-title":"Cannabis and anxiety: a critical review of the evidence","volume":"24","author":"Crippa","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hum. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1002","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3565(25)13195-9","article-title":"Pharmacological characterization of cannabinoids in the elevated plus maze","volume":"253","author":"Onaivi","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-2999(96)00511-0","article-title":"Cannabinoid modulation of rat pup ultrasonic vocalizations","volume":"313","author":"McGregor","year":"1996","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3565(25)12276-3","article-title":"Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) antagonist [D-Phe12,Nle21,38,C alpha MeLeu37]CRF attenuates the acute actions of the highly potent cannabinoid receptor agonist HU-210 on defensive-withdrawal behavior in rats","volume":"276","author":"Rubio","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2050","DOI":"10.1126\/science.276.5321.2050","article-title":"Activation of corticotropin-releasing factor in the limbic system during cannabinoid withdrawal","volume":"276","author":"Carrera","year":"1997","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1615\/CritRevNeurobiol.v13.i3.20","article-title":"Behavioral effects of cannabinoid agents in animals","volume":"13","author":"Chaperon","year":"1999","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/S0091-3057(01)00578-0","article-title":"Cannabinoid effects on anxiety-related behaviours and hypothalamic neurotransmitters","volume":"70","author":"Arevalo","year":"2001","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-002-1144-9","article-title":"Involvement of the opioid system in the anxiolytic-like effects induced by Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol","volume":"163","author":"Berrendero","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1016\/S0091-3057(02)01041-9","article-title":"Involvement of the kappa-opioid receptor in the anxiogenic-like effect of CP 55,940 in male rats","volume":"74","author":"Marin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbb.2003.12.019","article-title":"Unconditioned and conditioned anxiogenic effects of the cannabinoid receptor agonist CP 55,940 in the social interaction test","volume":"77","author":"Genn","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11700","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1636-07.2007","article-title":"Cannabinoids elicit antidepressant-like behavior and activate serotonergic neurons through the medial prefrontal cortex","volume":"27","author":"Bambico","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1016\/S0893-133X(97)00018-3","article-title":"Delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol increases prefrontal cortical catecholaminergic utilization and impairs spatial working memory in the rat: blockade of dopaminergic effects with HA966","volume":"16","author":"Jentsch","year":"1997","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1097\/00008877-200202000-00003","article-title":"The cannabinoid agonist WIN 55,212-2 reduces sensorimotor gating and recognition memory in rats","volume":"13","author":"Schneider","year":"2002","journal-title":"Behav. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.2174\/1568007033482670","article-title":"Cannabinoids and memory: animal studies","volume":"2","author":"Castellano","year":"2003","journal-title":"Curr. Drug Targets CNS Neurol. Disord."},{"key":"ref_100","first-page":"903","article-title":"Cannabinoids alter recognition memory in rats","volume":"55","author":"Kosiorek","year":"2003","journal-title":"Pol. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-004-1953-0","article-title":"Cannabinoid CB1 receptor-mediated impairment ofvisuospatial attention in the rat","volume":"177","author":"Arguello","year":"2004","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1038\/nm803","article-title":"Modulation of anxiety through blockade of anandamide hydrolysis","volume":"9","author":"Kathuria","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2652","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.npp.1301061","article-title":"Anxiolytic-like properties of the anandamide transport inhibitor AM404","volume":"31","author":"Bortolato","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2006.12.001","article-title":"Antidepressant-like activity of the fatty acid amide hydrolase inhibitor URB597 in a rat model of chronic mild stress","volume":"62","author":"Bortolato","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1894","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2007.04.028","article-title":"Cannabinoid receptor stimulation is anti-inflammatory and improves memory in old rats","volume":"29","author":"Marchalant","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Aging"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1068","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2009.62","article-title":"New neuron production can be increased in the hippocampus of aged rats following cannabinoid treatment","volume":"14","author":"Marchalant","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2008.02.003","article-title":"Long lasting consequences of cannabis exposure in adolescence","volume":"286","author":"Rubino","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1972.01750250117016","article-title":"Psychiatric effects of hashish","volume":"27","author":"Tennant","year":"1972","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1016\/S0193-953X(18)30611-7","article-title":"Patterns of use and psychopathology in chronic marijuana users","volume":"9","author":"Millman","year":"1986","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Clin. North Am."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comppsych.2008.05.001","article-title":"Multimethod alexithymia assessment in adolescents and young adults with a cannabis use disorder","volume":"49","author":"Dorard","year":"2008","journal-title":"Compr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_111","first-page":"545","article-title":"Factors influencing self-administration of, and subjective response to, placebo marijuana","volume":"3","author":"Chait","year":"1992","journal-title":"Behav. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.93.3.441","article-title":"Cannabis: effects on memory and the cholinergic limbic system","volume":"93","author":"Miller","year":"1983","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2004.04.009","article-title":"Long-term heavy marijuana users make costly decisions on a gambling task","volume":"76","author":"Whitlow","year":"2004","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1002\/hup.941","article-title":"Executive function deficits in short-term abstinent cannabis users","volume":"23","author":"McHale","year":"2008","journal-title":"Hum. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1002\/syn.20155","article-title":"Differences in regional brain metabolism associated with marijuana abuse in methamphetamine abusers","volume":"57","author":"Voytek","year":"2005","journal-title":"Synapse"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1007\/s001270170052","article-title":"The relationship between cannabis use, depression and anxiety among Australian adults: findings from the National Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being","volume":"36","author":"Degenhardt","year":"2001","journal-title":"Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1025786925483","article-title":"Co-twin control study of relationship among combat exposure, combat-related PTSD, and other mental disorders","volume":"16","author":"Koenen","year":"2003","journal-title":"J.Trauma Stress"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1440-1614.2003.01180.x","article-title":"Substance use disorder comorbidity among inpatient youths with psychiatric disorder","volume":"37","author":"Swadi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Aust.Nzj. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_119","first-page":"144","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress disorder, survivor guilt and substance use a study of hospitalised Nigerian army veterans","volume":"96","author":"Okulate","year":"2006","journal-title":"S. Afr. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2005.09.005","article-title":"Lifetime associations between cannabis, use, abuse, and dependence and panic attacks in a representative sample","volume":"40","author":"Zvolensky","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Pevchiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1097\/chi.0b013e31802dc54d","article-title":"Cannabis and anxiety and depression in young adults: a large prospective syudy","volume":"46","author":"Hayatbakhsh","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1212","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.325.7374.1212","article-title":"Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longitudinal prospective study","volume":"325","author":"Arseneault","year":"2002","journal-title":"BMJ."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1360-0443.2002.00103.x","article-title":"Cannabis use and psychosocial adjustment in adolescence and young adulthood","volume":"97","author":"Fergusson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.180.3.216","article-title":"Mental health of teenagers who use cannabis. Results of an Australian survey","volume":"180","author":"Rey","year":"2002","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_125","first-page":"427","article-title":"Marijuana sensitivity and panic anxiety","volume":"49","author":"Szuster","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatr."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3223(00)00900-8","article-title":"The impact of substance abuse on the course of bipolar disorder","volume":"48","author":"Strakowski","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1008","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.162.5.1008","article-title":"Substance abuse in first-episode bipolar I disorder: indications for early intervention","volume":"162","author":"Baethge","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.64.1.57","article-title":"Effects of co-occurring cannabis use disorders on the course of bipolar disorder after a first hospitalization for mania","volume":"64","author":"Strakowski","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1522-7162(1996)4:2<77::AID-DEPR7>3.0.CO;2-C","article-title":"Do patients use marijuana as an antidepressant?","volume":"4","author":"Gruber","year":"1996","journal-title":"Depression"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/S0899-3289(97)90018-3","article-title":"Anxiety sensitivity and self-reported reasons for drug use","volume":"9","author":"Stewart","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Subst. Abuse"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1080\/02791072.1998.10399687","article-title":"The use of cannabis as a mood stabilizer in bipolar disorder: anecdotal evidence and the need for clinical research","volume":"30","author":"Grinspoon","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Psychoactive Drugs"},{"key":"ref_132","first-page":"1685","article-title":"Self-reported medical use of marijuana: a survey of the general population","volume":"162","author":"Ogborne","year":"2000","journal-title":"CMAJ"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1081\/ADA-120015873","article-title":"Rates of psychiatric comorbidity among U.S. residents with lifetime cannabis dependence","volume":"28","author":"Agosti","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abuse"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2006.12.013","article-title":"Cannabis use and cannabis use disorders and their relationship to mental disorders: a 10-year prospective-longitudinal community study in adolescents","volume":"88","author":"Wittchen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2007.01.002","article-title":"Specificity of social anxiety disorder as a risk factor for alcohol and cannabis dependence","volume":"42","author":"Buckner","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00434401","article-title":"A single dose study of nabilone, a synthetic cannabinoid","volume":"71","author":"Glass","year":"1980","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S377","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1552-4604.1981.tb02617.x","article-title":"The efficacy and safety of nabilone (a synthetic cannabinoid) in the treatment of anxiety","volume":"21","author":"Fabre","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_138","first-page":"943","article-title":"Nabilone, a cannabinol derivative, in the treatment of anxiety neurosis","volume":"29","author":"Ilaria","year":"1981","journal-title":"Curr. Ther. Res."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tips.2006.08.006","article-title":"Role of the endocannabinoid system in depression and suicide","volume":"27","author":"Vinod","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trends Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_140","unstructured":"Bortolato, M., and Piomelli, D. (2008). Handbook of Behavioral Neuroscience 17: Handbook of anxiety and fear, Elsevier. Chapter 4.5."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expneurol.2010.03.018","article-title":"The endocannabinoid system and psychiatric disorders","volume":"224","author":"Parolaro","year":"2010","journal-title":"Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2005.03.003","article-title":"Pharmacological enhancement of cannabinoid CB1 receptor activity elicits an antidepressant-like response in the rat forced swim test","volume":"15","author":"Hill","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1007\/s00406-002-0366-5","article-title":"Cannabis and schizophrenia: impact on onset, course, psychopathology and outcomes","volume":"252","author":"Bersani","year":"2002","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/S0376-8716(03)00064-4","article-title":"Testing hypotheses about the relationship between cannabis use and psychosis","volume":"71","author":"Degenhardt","year":"2003","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.332.7534.172","article-title":"Cannabis and psychosis","volume":"332","author":"Fergusson","year":"2006","journal-title":"B.M.J."},{"key":"ref_146","first-page":"1483","article-title":"Cannabis and schizophrenia. A longitudinal study of Swedish conscripts","volume":"2","author":"Allebeck","year":"1987","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwf043","article-title":"Cannabis use andpsychosis: a longitudinal population-based study","volume":"156","author":"Bak","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.bp.106.024448","article-title":"Substance use in a population-based clinic sample of people with first-episode psychosis","volume":"190","author":"Barnett","year":"2007","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.90.4.853","article-title":"Experimental analysis of the psychopathological effects of intoxication drugs","volume":"90","author":"Lindenmann","year":"1934","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2004.12.006","article-title":"Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol effects in schizophrenia: implications for cognition, psychosis, and addiction","volume":"57","author":"Madonick","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"960","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2005.05.022","article-title":"Is the P300 wave an endophenotype for schizophrenia? A meta-analysis and a family study","volume":"27","author":"Bramon","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2008.04.008","article-title":"Effects of acute oral Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol and standardized cannabis extract on the auditory P300 event-related potential in healthy volunteers","volume":"18","author":"Roser","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1007\/s002130100810","article-title":"Human studies of prepulse inhibition of startle: normal subjects, patient groups, and pharmacological studies","volume":"156","author":"Braff","year":"2001","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2007.01.032","article-title":"Attention-dependent reduction in prepulse inhibition of the startle reflex in cannabis users and schizophrenia patients--a pilot study","volume":"560","author":"Kedzior","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0447.1992.tb01456.x","article-title":"Influence of cannabis abuse on schizophrenic psychopathology","volume":"85","author":"Peralta","year":"1992","journal-title":"Acta Psychiatr. Scand."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1080\/j.1440-1614.2006.01840.x","article-title":"Reasons for cannabis use in psychosis","volume":"40","author":"Schofield","year":"2006","journal-title":"Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/15.3.465","article-title":"Substance use in young adults with schizophrenic disorders","volume":"15","author":"Test","year":"1989","journal-title":"Schizophr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-009-1612-6","article-title":"Role of cannabis and endocannabinoids in the genesis of schizophrenia","volume":"206","author":"Viveros","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/S0306-4522(00)00552-2","article-title":"Studies on [3H]CP-55940 binding in the human central nervous system: regional specific changes in density of cannabinoid-1 receptors associated with schizophrenia and cannabis use","volume":"103","author":"Dean","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2003.11.005","article-title":"Selective antagonist [3H]SR141716A binding to cannabinoid CB1 receptors is increased in the anterior cingulate cortex in schizophrenia","volume":"28","author":"Zavitsanou","year":"2004","journal-title":"Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1007\/s00702-007-0660-5","article-title":"Expression of CB1 cannabinoid receptor in the anterior cingulate cortex in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depression","volume":"114","author":"Koethe","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neural. Transm."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"772","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.65.7.772","article-title":"Reduced cortical cannabinoid 1 receptor messenger RNA and protein expression in schizophrenia","volume":"65","author":"Eggan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2007.04.025","article-title":"Anandamide levels in cerebrospinal fluid of first-episode schizophrenic patients: impact of cannabis use","volume":"94","author":"Leweke","year":"2007","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2108","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.npp.1300558","article-title":"Cerebrospinal anandamide levels are elevated in acute schizophrenia and are inversely correlated with psychotic symptoms","volume":"29","author":"Giuffrida","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bossong, M.G., and Niesink, R.J. (2010). Adolescent brain maturation, the endogenous cannabinoid system and the neurobiology of cannabis-induced schizophrenia. Prog. Neurobiol.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2010.06.010"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1760","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.npp.1300225","article-title":"Chronic pubertal, but not adult chronic cannabinoid treatment impairs sensorimotor gating, recognition memory, and the performance in a progressive ratio task in adult rats","volume":"28","author":"Schneider","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-004-1941-4","article-title":"The CB receptor agonist WIN 55,212-2 fails to elicit disruption of prepulse inhibition of the startle in Sprague-Dawley rats","volume":"177","author":"Bortolato","year":"2005","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/0920-9964(94)00053-B","article-title":"Morbid risk of schizophrenia for relatives of patients with cannabis-associated psychosis","volume":"15","author":"McGuire","year":"1995","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"916","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.mp.4001560","article-title":"Human cannabinoid receptor 1',5'-exons, candidate regulatory regions, polymorphisms, haplotypes and association with polysubstance abuse","volume":"9","author":"Zhang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.mp.4000247","article-title":"Cannabinoid receptor gene (CNR1), association with i.v. drug use","volume":"2","author":"Comings","year":"1997","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.mp.4001278","article-title":"Association between cannabinoid receptor gene (CNR1) and childhood attention deficit\/hyperactivity disorder in Spanish male alcoholic patients","volume":"8","author":"Ponce","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/S0376-8716(01)00164-8","article-title":"Association of a CB1 cannabinoid receptor gene (CNR1) polymorphism with severe alcohol dependence","volume":"65","author":"Schmidt","year":"2002","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1375\/twin.10.6.805","article-title":"Association between single nucleotide polymorphisms in the cannabinoid receptor gene (CNR1) and impulsivity in southwest California Indians","volume":"10","author":"Ehlers","year":"2007","journal-title":"Twin. Res. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2019","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2009.19","article-title":"CNR1 gene is associated with high neuroticism and low agreeableness and interacts with recent negative life events to predict current depressive symptoms","volume":"34","author":"Juhasz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1944","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-9568.2006.04697.x","article-title":"Variations in the human cannabinoid receptor (CNR1) gene modulate striatal responses to happy faces","volume":"23","author":"Chakrabarti","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2008.05.003","article-title":"Cannabinoid receptor 1 (CNR1) gene: impact on antidepressant treatment response and emotion processing in major depression","volume":"18","author":"Domschke","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.tpj.6500301","article-title":"Depression in Parkinson's disease is related to a genetic polymorphism of the cannabinoid receptor gene (CNR1)","volume":"5","author":"Barrero","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pharmacogenomics J."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.mp.4001029","article-title":"CNR1, central cannabinoid receptor gene, associated with susceptibility to hebephrenic schizophrenia","volume":"7","author":"Ujike","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_179","first-page":"279","article-title":"Cannabinoid receptor 1 gene (CNR1) and susceptibility to a quantitative phenotype for hebephrenic schizophrenia","volume":"147","author":"Hare","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Genet. B. Neuropsychiatr. Genet."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2007.08.008","article-title":"No association of CNR1 gene variations with susceptibility to schizophrenia","volume":"426","author":"Seifert","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2007.05.005","article-title":"The CNR1 gene as a pharmacogenetic factor for antipsychotics rather than a susceptibility gene for schizophrenia","volume":"18","author":"Hamdani","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/sbn108","article-title":"Gene-environment interplay between cannabis and psychosis","volume":"34","author":"Henquet","year":"2008","journal-title":"Schizophr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2005.01.026","article-title":"Moderation of the effect of adolescent-onset cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the catechol-O-methyltransferase gene: longitudinal evidence of a gene X environment interaction","volume":"57","author":"Caspi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2748","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.npp.1301197","article-title":"An experimental study of catechol-o-methyltransferase Val158Met moderation of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol-induced effects on psychosis and cognition","volume":"31","author":"Henquet","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-007-0721-3","article-title":"Heterozygous neuregulin 1 mice are more sensitive to the behavioural effects of Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol","volume":"192","author":"Boucher","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2009.07.016","article-title":"Association between ABCB1 C3435T polymorphism and increased risk of cannabis dependence","volume":"33","author":"Benyamina","year":"2009","journal-title":"Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2007.10.007","article-title":"Gene polymorphism influencing treatment response in psychotic patients in a naturalistic setting","volume":"42","author":"Alenius","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2007.09.003","article-title":"ABCB1 (MDR1) gene polymorphisms are associated with the clinical response to paroxetine in patients with major depressive disorder","volume":"32","author":"Kato","year":"2008","journal-title":"Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.58.10.909","article-title":"Neuropsychological performance in long-term cannabis users","volume":"58","author":"Pope","year":"2001","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1308.053","article-title":"Impact of cannabis use on brain function in adolescents","volume":"1021","author":"Jacobsen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_191","first-page":"S18","article-title":"Cannabis use before age 15 years is associated with poorer attention and executive function","volume":"63","author":"Novaes","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1177\/1073858406296407","article-title":"The endocannabinoid system and neurogenesis in health and disease","volume":"13","author":"Aguado","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuroscientist"},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3223(99)00072-4","article-title":"Childhood-onset schizophrenia: progressive brain changes during adolescence","volume":"46","author":"Giedd","year":"1999","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbb.2006.12.001","article-title":"Adolescent cortical development: a critical period of vulnerability for addiction","volume":"86","author":"Crews","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.mp.4001642","article-title":"The neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia: update 2005","volume":"10","author":"Rapoport","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1002\/cbm.26","article-title":"Cannabis dependence and mental health perception amongst people diverted by police after arrest for cannabis-related offending behaviour in Australia","volume":"15","author":"Feeney","year":"2005","journal-title":"Crim. Behav. Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1476-5381.2010.00776.x","article-title":"How important are sex differences in cannabinoid action?","volume":"160","author":"Fattore","year":"2010","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881104047277","article-title":"Chronic cannabinoid exposure produces lasting memory impairment and increased anxiety in adolescent but not adult rats","volume":"18","author":"Singh","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881106065188","article-title":"Repeated cannabinoid exposure during perinatal.; adolescent or early adult ages produces similar long-lasting deficits in object recognition and reduced social interaction in rats","volume":"20","author":"McGregor","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psychopharmacol"},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1007\/s12640-009-9031-3","article-title":"The depressive phenotype induced in adult female rats by adolescent exposure to THC is associated with cognitive impairment and altered neuroplasticity in the prefrontal cortex","volume":"15","author":"Rubino","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neurotox. Res."},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.1976.tb00871.x","article-title":"Interactions of marijuana and induced stress: forearm blood flow, heart rate, and skin conductance","volume":"13","author":"Naliboff","year":"1976","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.3109\/10826088109039171","article-title":"The subjective marijuana experience: great expectations","volume":"16","author":"Adamec","year":"1981","journal-title":"Int. J. Addict."},{"key":"ref_203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1016\/0306-4603(94)90008-6","article-title":"Variability in subjective responses to marijuana: initial experiences of college students","volume":"19","author":"Davidson","year":"1994","journal-title":"Addict. Behav."},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03033223","article-title":"Role of endocannabinoid system in mental diseases","volume":"6","author":"Manzanares","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neurotox. Res."},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/sbi027","article-title":"The environment and schizophrenia: the role of cannabis use","volume":"31","author":"Henquet","year":"2005","journal-title":"Schizophr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291706009731","article-title":"Does normal developmental expression of psychosis combine with environmental risk to cause persistence of psychosis? A psychosis proneness-persistence model","volume":"37","author":"Cougnard","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_207","first-page":"1","article-title":"Cannabis use and childhood trauma interact additively to increase the risk of psychotic symptoms in adolescence","volume":"9","author":"Harley","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.65.6.674","article-title":"Genetic and environmental influences on alcohol, caffeine, cannabis, and nicotine use from early adolescence to middle adulthood","volume":"65","author":"Kendler","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry."},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramsay, M., and Percy, A. (1996). Drug misuse declared: results of the 1994 British Crime Survey, Home Office Research and Statistics Department.","DOI":"10.1037\/e451582008-001"},{"key":"ref_210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1016\/0306-3623(93)90154-P","article-title":"The evidence for the existence of cannabinoid receptors","volume":"24","author":"Pertwee","year":"1993","journal-title":"Gen. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_211","first-page":"213","article-title":"Effect of cannabidiol on plasma prolactin, growth hormone and cortisol in human volunteers","volume":"26","author":"Zuardi","year":"1993","journal-title":"Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res."},{"key":"ref_212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2007.10.043","article-title":"Effect of social isolation on CB1 and D2 receptor and fatty acid amide hydrolase expression in rats","volume":"152","author":"Malone","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_213","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2010.04.007","article-title":"Social isolation and chronic handling alter endocannabinoid signaling and behavioral reactivity to context in adult rats","volume":"168","author":"Sciolino","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9800","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0703472104","article-title":"[18F]MK-9470, a positron emission tomography (PET) tracer for in vivo human PET brain imaging of the cannabinoid-1 receptor","volume":"104","author":"Burns","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1007\/s11307-008-0194-8","article-title":"PET imaging studies in rhesus monkey with the cannabinoid-1 (CB1) receptor ligand [11C]CB-119","volume":"11","author":"Hamill","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mol. Imaging. Biol."},{"key":"ref_216","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1533","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2007.10.053","article-title":"Gender-dependent increases with healthy aging of the human cerebral cannabinoid-type 1 receptor binding using [(18)F]MK-9470 PET","volume":"39","author":"Goffin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_217","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1001\/archgenpsychiatry.2008.530","article-title":"Relationship of type 1 cannabinoid receptor availability in the human brain to novelty-seeking temperament","volume":"66","author":"Goffin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"}],"container-title":["Pharmaceuticals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8247\/3\/9\/2799\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T22:03:14Z","timestamp":1760220194000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8247\/3\/9\/2799"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2010,8,26]]},"references-count":217,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,9]]}},"alternative-id":["ph3092799"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ph3092799","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8247"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8247","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2010,8,26]]}}}