{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T16:42:31Z","timestamp":1788885751130,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":78,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,30]],"date-time":"2020-11-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1606694400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Benzodiazepines such as diazepam, lorazepam and midazolam remained the mainstay of treatment for acute repetitive seizures (ARS). The immediate care for ARS should often begin at home by a caregiver. This prevents the progression of ARS to prolonged seizures or status epilepticus. For a long time and despite social objections rectal diazepam gel remained only FDA-approved rescue medication. Intranasal administration of benzodiazepines is considered attractive and safe compared with rectal, buccal and sublingual routes. Intranasal delivery offers numerous advantages such as large absorptive surface area, bypass the first-pass metabolism and good patient acceptance as it is needle free and painless. Recent clinical studies have demonstrated that diazepam nasal spray (NRL-1; Valtoco\u00ae, Neurelis Inc.,San Diego, CA, USA) showed less pharmacokinetic variability and reliable bioavailability compared with the diazepam rectal gel. Diazepam nasal spray could be considered as a suitable alternative for treating seizure emergencies outside the hospital. This review summarizes the treatment options for ARS and findings from clinical studies involving intranasal diazepam for treating seizure emergencies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics12121167","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,30]],"date-time":"2020-11-30T20:10:22Z","timestamp":1606767022000},"page":"1167","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":41,"title":["A Short Review on the Intranasal Delivery of Diazepam for Treating Acute Repetitive Seizures"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2513-5879","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sai H. S.","family":"Boddu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Ajman University, Ajman P.O. Box 346, UAE"},{"name":"Center of Medical and Bio-allied Health Sciences Research, Ajman University, Ajman P.O. Box 346, UAE"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sneha","family":"Kumari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy Practice, The University of Toledo, Health Science Campus, 3000 Arlington Ave, Toledo, OH 43614, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1007\/s11940-007-0011-8","article-title":"Identification and treatment of acute repetitive seizures in children and adults","volume":"9","author":"Cereghino","year":"2007","journal-title":"Curr. Treat. Options Neurol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1915","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.59.12.1915","article-title":"Rectal diazepam gel for treatment of acute repetitive seizures in adults","volume":"59","author":"Cereghino","year":"2002","journal-title":"Arch. 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