{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]],"date-time":"2026-10-26T12:30:52Z","timestamp":1793017852678,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":130,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,12]],"date-time":"2022-01-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1641945600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Since the teratogenicity of Thalidomide has been proven, herbal products are more commonly used in pregnancy to not only relieve morning sickness but also to fight infections. These products are frequently considered as natural and therefore harmless. However, herbs contain a number of active substances that, when used during pregnancy, can affect the development of the fetus. Often, pregnant women do not consult the usage of herbal medicines with a physician. The access to these products is easy and treatment of certain ailments with the use of herbs is common in many countries. The aim of the present literature review was to discuss available data regarding the efficacy and safety of cranberry, chamomile, Echinacea purpurea, garlic, ginger, Ginkgo biloba, and peppermint, which are used to counteract the most common ailments during pregnancy, i.e., infections and pregnancy-related ailments (e.g., nausea and vomiting, dizziness, and headache). Analysis of available data showed that ginger is one of the most extensively analyzed herbal remedies. The dose of ginger below 1000 mg per day may help to relief hypereremesis gravidarum, and such an amount of ginger did not increase frequency of adverse effects for either woman or developing fetus. Data regarding other herbs are most often heterogeneous and give conflicting results with no clear conclusions. However, all herbal products should be used with a special caution in pregnancy. Further high-quality human studies should be determined to confirm the safe doses of herbal products which could be used by pregnant or breast-feeding women.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics14010171","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,12]],"date-time":"2022-01-12T09:10:36Z","timestamp":1641978636000},"page":"171","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":58,"title":["Herbal Medicines\u2014Are They Effective and Safe during Pregnancy?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0002-8591","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Beata","family":"Sarecka-Hujar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Basic Biomedical Science, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Kasztanowa Str. 3, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2842-0520","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Beata","family":"Szulc-Musio\u0142","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Kasztanowa Str. 3, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1089\/jmf.2016.0126","article-title":"Morphofunctional Renal Alterations in Progeny of Mice Fed Rhodiola kirilowii Extracts or Epigallocatechin During Pregnancy and Lactation","volume":"20","author":"Lewicki","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Med. Food"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1002\/bdrb.20186","article-title":"The effects of Scutellaria baicalensis extract on embryonic development in mice","volume":"86","author":"Tian","year":"2009","journal-title":"Birth Defects Res. B Dev. Reprod. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2010.12.034","article-title":"The effects of Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaud. on embryonic development: In vivo and in vitro studies","volume":"134","author":"Tian","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tips.2004.02.007","article-title":"Pharmacogenetics of cytochrome P450 and its applications in drug therapy: The past, present and future","volume":"25","year":"2004","journal-title":"Trends Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1002\/ptr.5037","article-title":"In vitro inhibition of human CYP1A2, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4 by six herbs commonly used in pregnancy","volume":"28","author":"Langhammer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Phytother. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1089\/acm.2008.0467","article-title":"The use and the user of herbal remedies during pregnancy","volume":"15","author":"Holst","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Altern. Complement. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Addis, G.T., Workneh, B.D., and Kahissay, M.H. (2021). Herbal medicines use and associated factors among pregnant women in Debre Tabor town, north West Ethiopia: A mixed method approach. BMC Complement Med Ther., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12906-021-03439-3"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1002\/pds.945","article-title":"Use of herbal drugs in pregnancy: A survey among 400 Norwegian women","volume":"13","author":"Nordeng","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug Saf."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1016\/j.midw.2010.08.007","article-title":"The use of complementary and alternative medicine by pregnant women: A literature review","volume":"27","author":"Hall","year":"2011","journal-title":"Midwifery"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1097\/GCO.0000000000000052","article-title":"Herbal therapies in pregnancy: What works?","volume":"26","author":"Dante","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2015.08.046","article-title":"\u201cNatural\u201d relief of pregnancy-related symptoms and neonatal outcomes: Above all do no harm","volume":"174","author":"Trabace","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1006","DOI":"10.1002\/pds.1610","article-title":"A population survey on the use of 24 common medicinal herbs in Australia","volume":"17","author":"Zhang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1111\/ajo.12056","article-title":"Prevalence and determinants of complementary and alternative medicine use during pregnancy: Results from a nationally representative sample of Australian pregnant women","volume":"53","author":"Frawley","year":"2013","journal-title":"Aust. N. Z. J. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.3233\/NUA-140038","article-title":"Proanthocyanidin Metabolism, a mini review","volume":"2","author":"Choy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nutr. Aging"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-005-0572-9","article-title":"The effects of cranberry juice consumption on antioxidant status and biomarkers relating to heart disease and cancer in healthy human volunteers","volume":"45","author":"Duthie","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"5","article-title":"Variation in the content of flavonols and main organic acids in the fruit of European cranberry (Oxycoccus palustris Pers.) growing in peatlands in peatlands of North-Western Poland","volume":"57","author":"Adamczak","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Herba Pol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.3945\/an.113.004473","article-title":"Cranberries and their bioactive constituents in human health","volume":"4","author":"Blumberg","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1524","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2011.167361","article-title":"Purified anthocyanin supplementation improves endothelial function via NO-cGMP activation in hypercholesterolemic individuals","volume":"57","author":"Zhu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1515\/pjvs-2017-0009","article-title":"Morphometric abnormalities in spleen and kidney of the progeny of mice fed American cranberry extract (Vaccinium macrocarpon) during pregnancy and lactation","volume":"20","author":"Lewicki","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pol. J. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1089\/acm.2014.0272","article-title":"Pilot Study to Evaluate Compliance and Tolerability of Cranberry Capsules in Pregnancy for the Prevention of Asymptomatic Bacteriuria","volume":"21","author":"Wing","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Altern. Complement. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1007\/s00228-016-2021-5","article-title":"Pregnancy outcomes after prenatal exposure to Echinacea: The Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study","volume":"72","author":"Heitmann","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ctcp.2010.09.002","article-title":"Use of herbal drugs during pregnancy among 600 Norwegian women in relation to concurrent use of conventional drugs and pregnancy outcome","volume":"17","author":"Nordeng","year":"2011","journal-title":"Complement. Ther. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0029-1224867","article-title":"Comparison of urinary cytokines after ingestion of cranberry juice cocktail in pregnant subjects: A pilot study","volume":"27","author":"Wing","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bjid.2020.04.002","article-title":"Joint report of SBI (Brazilian Society of Infectious Diseases), FEBRASGO (Brazilian Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics Associations), SBU (Brazilian Society of Urology) and SBPC\/ML (Brazilian Society of Clinical Pathology\/Laboratory Medicine): Recommendations for the clinical management of lower urinary tract infections in pregnant and non-pregnant women","volume":"24","author":"Cimerman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Braz. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Skopinska-R\u00f3\u017cewska, E. (2002). Immunotropowe dzia\u0142anie je\u017c\u00f3wek (Echinacea purpurea, Echinacea pallida, Echinacea angustifolia). Wp\u0142yw Substancji Naturalnych na Uk\u0142ad Odporno\u015bciowy, Fundacja Pomocy Zdrowiu\u2014Medycyna Naturalna. (In Polish)."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2011.05.017","article-title":"A comparison of the immunostimulatory effects of the medicinal herbs Echinacea, Ashwagandha and Brahmi","volume":"37","author":"Yamada","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/S1043-6618(03)00153-1","article-title":"Modulation of apoptosis in mice treated with Echinacea and St. John\u2019s wort","volume":"48","author":"Nuzzo","year":"2003","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8820","DOI":"10.1021\/jf901202y","article-title":"Endogenous levels of Echinacea alkylamides and ketones are important contributors to the inhibition of prostaglandin E2 and nitric oxide production in cultured macrophages","volume":"57","author":"LaLone","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"35","article-title":"Influence of Echinacea purpurea intake during pregnancy on fetal growth and tissue angiogenic activity","volume":"45","author":"Barcz","year":"2007","journal-title":"Folia Histochem. Cytobiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1159\/000088795","article-title":"Dietary Echinacea purpurea during murine pregnancy: Effect on maternal hemopoiesis and fetal growth","volume":"89","author":"Chow","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biol. Neonate"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1097\/00002371-200209000-00005","article-title":"Oral administration of freshly expressed juice of Echinacea purpurea herbs fail to stimulate the nonspecific immune response in healthy young men: Results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study","volume":"25","author":"Schwarz","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clpt.2003.09.013","article-title":"The effect of echinacea (Echinacea purpurea root) on cytochrome P450 activity in vivo","volume":"75","author":"Gorski","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"European Medicines Agency (2022, January 11). European Union herbal monograph on Echinacea Purpurea (L.) Moench, Herba Recens. Available online: https:\/\/www.ema.europa.eu\/en\/documents\/herbal-monograph\/final-european-union-herbal-monograph-echinacea-purpurea-l-moench-herba-recens_en.pdf."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Blumenthal, M., Goldberg, A., and Brinkmann, J. (2000). Herbal Medicine. Expanded Comission E Monographs, Integrative Medicine. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"e262","article-title":"Safety and efficacy of echinacea (Echinacea angustafolia, e. purpurea and e. pallida) during pregnancy and lactation","volume":"13","author":"Perri","year":"2006","journal-title":"Can. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"1727","article-title":"Can herbal products be used safely during pregnancy? Focus on echinacea","volume":"47","author":"Gallo","year":"2001","journal-title":"Can. Fam. Physician"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3141","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.160.20.3141","article-title":"Pregnancy outcome following gestational exposure to echinacea: A prospective controlled study","volume":"160","author":"Gallo","year":"2000","journal-title":"Arch. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2014.00031","article-title":"Echinacea and elderberry-should they be used against upper respiratory tract infections during pregnancy?","volume":"5","author":"Holst","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1002\/ptr.1667","article-title":"Garlic natural health products exhibit variable constituent levels and antimicrobial activity against Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis","volume":"19","author":"Ruddock","year":"2005","journal-title":"Phytother. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"241","article-title":"Investigation on the antibacterial properties of garlic (Allium sativum) on pneumonia causing bacteria","volume":"40","author":"Dikasso","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ethiop. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"24","article-title":"GBS, pregnancy and garlic: Be a part of the solution","volume":"72","author":"Cohain","year":"2004","journal-title":"Midwifery Today Int. Midwife"},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"CD006065","article-title":"Garlic for preventing pre-eclampsia and its complications","volume":"3","author":"Meher","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/S0301-2115(01)00384-0","article-title":"The effect of garlic tablet on plasma lipids and platelet aggregation in nulliparous pregnants at high risk of preeclampsia","volume":"99","author":"Ziaei","year":"2001","journal-title":"Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"152","article-title":"Protective effects of Allium sativum against defects of hypercholesterolemia on pregnant rats and their offspring","volume":"3","author":"Gadallah","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.1007\/s11011-016-9837-7","article-title":"Protective effects of ascorbic acid and garlic extract against lead-induced apoptosis in developing rat hippocampus","volume":"31","author":"Hami","year":"2016","journal-title":"Metab. Brain Dis."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8953","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-020-07654-2","article-title":"Therapeutic role of garlic and vitamins C and E against toxicity induced by lead on various organs","volume":"27","author":"Mumtaz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.5603\/FM.a2017.0063","article-title":"Protective effect of garlic extract against maternal and foetal cerebellar damage induced by lead administration during pregnancy in rats","volume":"77","author":"Saleh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Folia Morphol. (Warsz)"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2001116","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.202001116","article-title":"Maternal Garlic Oil Supplementation Prevents High-Fat Diet-Induced Hypertension in Adult Rat Offspring: Implications of H2S-Generating Pathway in the Gut and Kidneys","volume":"65","author":"Hsu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2020","DOI":"10.3109\/14767058.2014.977248","article-title":"The favorable effects of garlic intake on metabolic profiles, hs-CRP, biomarkers of oxidative stress and pregnancy outcomes in pregnant women at risk for pre-eclampsia: Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"28","author":"Karamali","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Matern. Fetal Neonatal Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1100","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.112.173229","article-title":"Intakes of garlic and dried fruits are associated with lower risk of spontaneous preterm delivery","volume":"143","author":"Myhre","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsps.2018.09.007","article-title":"Pregnant women\u2019s use and attitude toward herbal, vitamin, and mineral supplements in an academic tertiary care center, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia","volume":"27","author":"Alissa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Saudi Pharm. J."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13690-016-0118-z","article-title":"Prevalence of herbal medicine use and associated factors among pregnant women attending antenatal care at public health facilities in Hossana Town.; Southern Ethiopia: Facility based cross sectional study","volume":"74","author":"Laelago","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mekuria, A.B., Erku, D.A., Gebresillassie, B.M., Birru, E.M., Tizazu, B., and Ahmedin, A. (2017). Prevalence and associated factors of herbal medicine use among pregnant women on antenatal care follow-up at University of Gondar referral and teaching hospital, Ethiopia: A cross-sectional study. BMC Complement. Altern. Med., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12906-017-1608-4"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adane, F., Seyoum, G., Alamneh, Y.M., Abie, W., Desta, M., and Sisay, B. (2020). Herbal medicine use and predictors among pregnant women attending antenatal care in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-020-2856-8"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2020.00046","article-title":"Public Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice on Herbal Remedies Used During Pregnancy and Lactation in West Bank Palestine","volume":"11","author":"Eid","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"465","article-title":"Variability of the essential oil content and composition of chamomile (Matricaria recutita L.","volume":"5","author":"Gosztola","year":"2010","journal-title":") affected by weather conditions. Nat. Prod. Commun."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1080\/14786410802560690","article-title":"Content and composition of the essential oil of Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert from some European countries","volume":"24","author":"Orav","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1848","DOI":"10.1021\/np4003349","article-title":"Hydroxylated bisabolol oxides: Evidence for secondary oxidative metabolism in Matricaria chamomilla","volume":"76","author":"Avonto","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e16","DOI":"10.1542\/pir.28.4.e16","article-title":"Complementary, holistic, and integrative medicine: Chamomile","volume":"28","author":"Gardiner","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pediatr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"46","article-title":"Effect of Ginger and Chamomile capsules on nausea and vomiting in pregnancy","volume":"14","author":"Modares","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Gorgan Univ. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1151","DOI":"10.1002\/pds.2040","article-title":"Use of herbal products among 392 Italian pregnant women: Focus on pregnancy outcome","volume":"19","author":"Cuzzolin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug Saf."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejogrb.2010.02.001","article-title":"Exposure to herbal products during pregnancy and the risk of preterm birth","volume":"150","author":"Moussally","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.homp.2015.09.003","article-title":"A randomized controlled trial comparing Pentazocine and Chamomilla recutita for labor pain relief","volume":"105","author":"Zafar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Homeopathy"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e19871","DOI":"10.5812\/ircmj.19871","article-title":"Onset of Labor in Post-Term Pregnancy by Chamomile","volume":"18","author":"Gholami","year":"2016","journal-title":"Iran. Red Crescent Med. J."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ctcp.2018.04.009","article-title":"The effect of chamomile odor on contractions of the first stage of delivery in primpara women: A clinical trial","volume":"32","author":"Mohammadi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Complement. Ther. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1080\/14767058.2016.1274300","article-title":"Chamomile reveals to be a potent galactogogue: The unexpected effect","volume":"31","author":"Silva","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Matern Fetal Neonatal. Med."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"148","article-title":"Role of cytochrome P450 in estradiol metabolism in vitro","volume":"22","author":"Cheng","year":"2001","journal-title":"Acta Pharmacol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1426","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2007.11.012","article-title":"Flavonoids diosmetin and luteolin inhibit midazolam metabolism by human liver microsomes and recombinant CYP 3A4 and CYP3A5 enzymes","volume":"75","author":"Quintieri","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ctcp.2011.08.007","article-title":"Ginger to reduce nausea and vomiting during pregnancy: Evidence of effectiveness is not the same as proof of safety","volume":"18","author":"Tiran","year":"2012","journal-title":"Complement. Ther. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mao, Q.Q., Xu, X.Y., Cao, S.Y., Gan, R.Y., Corke, H., Beta, T., and Li, H.B. (2019). Bioactive Compounds and Bioactivities of Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe). Foods, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods8060185"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2013.865590","article-title":"Ginger-Mechanism of action in chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: A review","volume":"57","author":"Marx","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1345\/aph.1D225","article-title":"Ginger-associated overanticoagulation by phenprocoumon","volume":"38","author":"Brosi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ann. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2125.2005.02322.x","article-title":"Effect of ginkgo and ginger on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of warfarin in healthy subjects","volume":"59","author":"Jiang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Finnish Food Safety Authority (2022, January 11). Warning for Food Supplements Containing Ginger and Ginger Tea and Similar 2021. Available online: https:\/\/www.ruokavirasto.fi\/en\/companies\/food-sector\/production\/food-information\/labelling\/instructions-for-use-and-warning\/warning-for-food-supplements-containing-ginger-and-ginger-tea-and-similar\/."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/S0890-6238(00)00116-7","article-title":"Investigation of the teratogenic potential of a zingiber officinale extract in the rat","volume":"15","author":"Weidner","year":"2001","journal-title":"Reprod. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phymed.2018.01.021","article-title":"Ginger causes subfertility and abortifacient in mice by targeting both estrous cycle and blastocyst implantation without teratogenesis","volume":"50","author":"ElMazoudy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Phytomedicine"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02387","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2019.e02387","article-title":"Effect of gabapentin on fetal rat brain and its amelioration by ginger","volume":"5","author":"Badawy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sjbs.2020.10.027","article-title":"Ginger extract attenuates labetalol induced apoptosis, DNA damage, histological and ultrastructural changes in the heart of rat fetuses","volume":"28","author":"Gobara","year":"2021","journal-title":"Saudi J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729724","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.729724","article-title":"Use of Herbal Medicines for the Treatment of Mild Mental Disorders and\/or Symptoms During Pregnancy: A Cross-Sectional Survey","volume":"12","author":"Gantner","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/S1353-6117(03)00057-X","article-title":"Use of anti-emetic herbs in pregnancy: Women\u2019s choices, and the question of safety and efficacy","volume":"10","author":"Westfall","year":"2004","journal-title":"Complement. Ther. Nurs. Midwifery"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2891-13-20","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effect and safety of ginger in the treatment of pregnancy-associated nausea and vomiting","volume":"13","author":"Viljoen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"1","article-title":"A comparison between the effects of ginger, pyridoxine (vitamin B6) and placebo for the treatment of the first trimester nausea and vomiting of pregnancy (NVP)","volume":"7","author":"Sharifzadeh","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Matern Fetal Neonatal. Med."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1097\/01.AOG.0000118307.19798.ec","article-title":"A randomized controlled trial of ginger to treat nausea and vomiting in pregnancy","volume":"103","author":"Smith","year":"2004","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1046\/j.0004-8666.2003.00039.x","article-title":"Effect of a ginger extract on pregnancy-induced nausea: A randomised controlled trial","volume":"43","author":"Willetts","year":"2003","journal-title":"Aust. N. Z. J. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-2243(91)90202-V","article-title":"Ginger treatment of hyperemesis gravidarum","volume":"38","author":"Kjaer","year":"1991","journal-title":"Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6835","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-25200-6","article-title":"A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial on the efficacy of ginger in the prevention of abdominal distention in post cesarean section patients","volume":"8","author":"Tianthong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hajimoosayi, F., Jahanian Sadatmahalleh, S., Kazemnejad, A., and Pirjani, R. (2020). Effect of ginger on the blood glucose level of women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) with impaired glucose tolerance test (GTT): A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. BMC Complement. Med. Ther., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12906-020-02908-5"},{"key":"ref_88","first-page":"1","article-title":"Pregnancy, prescription medicines and the potential risk of herb-drug interactions: A cross-sectional survey","volume":"19","author":"McLay","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMC Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2016.0073","article-title":"The effect of ginger on breast milk volume in the early postpartum period: A randomized, double-blind controlled trial","volume":"11","author":"Paritakul","year":"2016","journal-title":"Breastfeed. Med."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2002","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chroma.2009.01.013","article-title":"Chemical analysis and quality control of Ginkgo biloba leaves, extracts, and phytopharmaceuticals","volume":"1216","author":"Montoro","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. A"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1021\/np9005019","article-title":"Ginkgo biloba and ginkgotoxin","volume":"73","author":"Leistner","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1742-7843.2008.00354.x","article-title":"Dual effects of Ginkgo biloba leaf extract on human red blood cells","volume":"104","author":"He","year":"2009","journal-title":"Basic Clin. Pharmacol. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"(2016). IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Some Drugs and Herbal Products, IARC. Available online: https:\/\/publications.iarc.fr\/132."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"National Toxicology Program (2013). Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of Ginkgo biloba extract (CAS No. 90045-36-6) in F344\/N rats and B6C3F1\/N mice (Gavage studies). Natl. Toxicol. Program Tech. Rep. Ser., 578, 1\u2013183."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1002\/bdrb.20235","article-title":"Effects of Ginkgo biloba extract on the embryo-fetal development in Wistar rats","volume":"89","author":"Fernandes","year":"2010","journal-title":"Birth Defects Res. B Dev. Reprod. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_96","first-page":"117","article-title":"Ginkgo biloba induced malformations in mice","volume":"20","author":"Zehra","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Coll. Physicians Surg. Pak."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.reprotox.2015.12.003","article-title":"Evaluation of embryotoxicity for major components of herbal extracts using the chick embryonic heart micromass and mouse D3 embryonic stem cell systems","volume":"59","author":"Mohammed","year":"2016","journal-title":"Reprod. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-3806(03)00168-8","article-title":"Prenatal exposure of rats to Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb 761) increases neuronal survival\/growth and alters gene expression in the developing fetal hippocampus","volume":"144","author":"Li","year":"2003","journal-title":"Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijdevneu.2018.07.004","article-title":"Ginkgolide B ameliorates NLRP3 inflammasome activation after hypoxic-ischemic brain injury in the neonatal male rat","volume":"69","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Dev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1002\/pds.1527","article-title":"Use of herbal drugs during early pregnancy in relation to maternal characteristics and pregnancy outcome","volume":"17","author":"Holst","year":"2008","journal-title":"Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug Saf."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1254","DOI":"10.1021\/tx0155101","article-title":"Identification of colchicine in placental blood from patients using herbal medicines","volume":"14","author":"Petty","year":"2001","journal-title":"Chem. Res. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1016\/S0735-6757(98)90228-5","article-title":"Fatal colchicine overdose: Report of a case and review of the literature","volume":"16","author":"Milne","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_103","first-page":"e1","article-title":"Pregnancy outcome after in utero exposure to colchicine","volume":"203","author":"Shechtman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_104","first-page":"124","article-title":"Chemical Study by GC-MS of the Essential Oils of Certain Mints Grown In the Region of Settat (Morocco): Mentha Piperita, Mentha Pulegium and Mentha Spicata","volume":"1","author":"Ainane","year":"2018","journal-title":"Drug Des. Intellect. Prop. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alammar, N., Wang, L., Saberi, B., Nanavati, J., Holtmann, G., Shinohara, R.T., and Mullin, G.E. (2019). The impact of peppermint oil on the irritable bowel syndrome: A meta-analysis of the pooled clinical data. BMC Complement. Altern. Med., 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12906-018-2409-0"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1675","DOI":"10.1007\/s10068-017-0217-9","article-title":"In vitro antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities of the ethanol extract of Mentha piperita L.","volume":"26","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Sci. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosato, A., Carocci, A., Catalano, A., Clodoveo, M.L., Franchini, C., Corbo, F., Carbonara, G.G., Carrieri, A., and Fracchiolla, G. (2018). Elucidation of the synergistic action of Mentha Piperita essential oil with common antimicrobials. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0200902"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2088","DOI":"10.1002\/ptr.6664","article-title":"Ethnomedicinal, phytochemical and pharmacological updates on Peppermint (Mentha \u00d7 piperita L.)-A review","volume":"34","author":"Mahendran","year":"2020","journal-title":"Phytother. Res."},{"key":"ref_109","first-page":"76","article-title":"Phytochemical and pharmacological review of Mentha arvensis","volume":"10","author":"Thawkar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Green Pharm."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1002\/ptr.3316","article-title":"Mode of action of peppermint oil and (-)-menthol with respect to 5-HT3 receptor subtypes: Binding studies, cation uptake by receptor channels and contraction of isolated rat ileum","volume":"25","author":"Heimes","year":"2011","journal-title":"Phytother. Res."},{"key":"ref_111","first-page":"CD007598","article-title":"Aromatherapy for treatment of postoperative nausea and vomiting","volume":"3","author":"Hines","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5897465","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/5897465","article-title":"Comparison of the Effect of Inhalation Aromatherapy with 10% and 30% Peppermint Essential Oils on the Severity of Nausea in Abdominal Surgery Patients","volume":"2020","author":"Ahmadi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Evid. Based Complement. Alternat Med."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1177\/0898010120961579","article-title":"Peppermint Essential Oil for Nausea and Vomiting in Hospitalized Patients: Incorporating Holistic Patient Decision Making Into the Research Design","volume":"39","author":"Mohr","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Holist. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ctcp.2020.101199","article-title":"The effect of aromatherapy with peppermint essential oil on nausea and vomiting after cardiac surgery: A randomized clinical trial","volume":"40","author":"Maghami","year":"2020","journal-title":"Complement. Ther. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1097\/01.NURSE.0000482882.38607.5c","article-title":"Inhaled peppermint oil for postop nausea in patients undergoing cardiac surgery","volume":"46","author":"Briggs","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nursing"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1089\/acm.2010.0862","article-title":"A brief review of current scientific evidence involving aromatherapy use for nausea and vomiting","volume":"18","author":"Lua","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Altern. Complement. Med."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.12968\/bjon.2007.16.2.22772","article-title":"Literature review: Should nursing take aromatherapy more seriously","volume":"16","author":"Buckle","year":"2007","journal-title":"Br. J. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_118","unstructured":"(2022, January 11). National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Herbs at a Glance, Available online: https:\/\/www.nccih.nih.gov\/health\/peppermint-oil."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"862","DOI":"10.4067\/S0717-95022011000300033","article-title":"Study of embryotoxicity of Menthapiperita, L. during organogenesis in Balb\/c mice","volume":"29","author":"Golalipour","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Morphol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.4103\/ijnmr.IJNMR_11_19","article-title":"The Effect of Combined Inhalation Aromatherapy with Lemon and Peppermint on Nausea and Vomiting of Pregnancy: A Double-Blind.; Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"25","author":"Safajou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Iran. J. Nurs. Midwifery Res."},{"key":"ref_121","first-page":"32","article-title":"Effect of aromatherapy with peppermint oil on the severity of nausea and vomiting in pregnancy: A single-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"19","author":"Joulaeerad","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Reprod. Infertil."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.5812\/ircmj.3477","article-title":"Study of the effect of mint oil on nausea and vomiting during pregnancy","volume":"14","author":"Pasha","year":"2012","journal-title":"Iran. Red Crescent Med. J."},{"key":"ref_123","first-page":"1073","article-title":"The effect of peppermint oil on symptomatic treatment of pruritus in pregnant women","volume":"11","author":"Mojab","year":"2012","journal-title":"Iran. J. Pharm. Res."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ctim.2016.11.001","article-title":"Use of herbal product among pregnant women in Turkey","volume":"30","year":"2017","journal-title":"Complement. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmed, M., Hwang, J.H., Choi, S., and Han, D. (2017). Safety classification of herbal medicines used among pregnant women in Asian countries: A systematic review. BMC Complement. Altern. Med., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12906-017-1995-6"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1080\/03630242.2017.1421285","article-title":"The relationship between women\u2019s characteristics and herbal medicines use during pregnancy","volume":"59","author":"Abdollahi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Women Health"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2597","DOI":"10.4103\/jfmpc.jfmpc_480_19","article-title":"Effect of mint aroma on nausea, vomiting and anxiety in pregnant women","volume":"8","author":"Amzajerdi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Fam. Med. Prim. Care"},{"key":"ref_128","first-page":"10","article-title":"The effect of aromatherapy inhalation on nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy: A pilot randomized controlled trial","volume":"3","author":"Ghani","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Nat. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1159\/000327310","article-title":"EU FP7 Project \u2018CAMbrella\u2019 to Build European Research Network for Complementary and Alternative Medicine","volume":"18","author":"Weidenhammer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Forsch. Komplementmed."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fischer, F.H., Lewith, G., Witt, C.M., Linde, K., von Ammon, K., Cardini, F., Falkenberg, T., F\u00f8nneb\u00f8, V., Johannessen, H., and Reiter, B. (2014). High prevalence but limited evidence in complementary and alternative medicine: Guidelines for future research. BMC Complement. Altern. Med., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/1472-6882-14-46"}],"container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/14\/1\/171\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T14:02:07Z","timestamp":1760364127000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/14\/1\/171"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,12]]},"references-count":130,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1]]}},"alternative-id":["pharmaceutics14010171"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pharmaceutics14010171","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4923"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4923","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,12]]}}}