{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,20]],"date-time":"2026-10-20T16:13:47Z","timestamp":1792512827160,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":185,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,22]],"date-time":"2022-11-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1669075200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Infectious diseases have always been regarded as one of the greatest global threats for the last century. The current ongoing COVID-19 pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 is living proof that the world is still threatened by emerging infectious diseases. Morbidity and mortality rates of diseases caused by Coronavirus have inflicted devastating social and economic outcomes. Undoubtedly, vaccination is the most effective method of eradicating infections and infectious diseases that have been eradicated by vaccinations, including Smallpox and Polio. To date, next-generation vaccine candidates with novel platforms are being approved for emergency use, such as the mRNA and viral vectored vaccines against SARS-CoV-2. Nanoparticle based vaccines are the perfect candidates as they demonstrated targeted antigen delivery, improved antigen presentation, and sustained antigen release while providing self-adjuvanting functions to stimulate potent immune responses. In this review, we discussed most of the recent nanovaccines that have found success in immunization and challenge studies in animal models in comparison with their naked vaccine counterparts. Nanovaccines that are currently in clinical trials are also reviewed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics14122554","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,22]],"date-time":"2022-11-22T08:27:29Z","timestamp":1669105649000},"page":"2554","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":34,"title":["Nanovaccines against Viral Infectious Diseases"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Wen Tzuen","family":"Heng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Virus and Vaccine Research, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Subang Jaya 47500, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jia Sheng","family":"Yew","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Virus and Vaccine Research, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Subang Jaya 47500, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8475-6291","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chit Laa","family":"Poh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Virus and Vaccine Research, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Subang Jaya 47500, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"CDC, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2019). 2009 H1N1 Pandemic (H1N1pdm09 Virus), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"WHO (2021). HIV\/AIDS, WHO."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"WHO (2022). WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard, WHO."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1221","DOI":"10.1586\/erv.11.79","article-title":"Vaccinia viruses: Vaccines against smallpox and vectors against infectious diseases and tumors","volume":"10","author":"Walsh","year":"2011","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1007\/s10875-019-00642-3","article-title":"Life-Threatening Infections Due to Live-Attenuated Vaccines: Early Manifestations of Inborn Errors of Immunity","volume":"39","author":"Bustamante","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2017.12.971","article-title":"Vaccine-associated hypersensitivity","volume":"141","author":"McNeil","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.110.5.957","article-title":"Neurologic disorders after measles-mumps-rubella vaccination","volume":"110","author":"Nuorti","year":"2002","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5951","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2017.03.032","article-title":"Yellow fever live attenuated vaccine: A very successful live attenuated vaccine but still we have problems controlling the disease","volume":"35","author":"Barrett","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.2165\/00148581-200810050-00007","article-title":"Live attenuated measles, mumps, rubella, and varicella zoster virus vaccine (Priorix-Tetra)","volume":"10","author":"Dhillon","year":"2008","journal-title":"Paediatr. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"736","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2020.04.003","article-title":"Engineering the Live-Attenuated Polio Vaccine to Prevent Reversion to Virulence","volume":"27","author":"Yeh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"CDC, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2021). Influenza Vaccination: A Summary for Clinicians, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2017.10.097","article-title":"A phase II randomized study to determine the safety and immunogenicity of the novel PIKA rabies vaccine containing the PIKA adjuvant using an accelerated regimen","volume":"35","author":"Kalimuddin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-021-00592-1","article-title":"Progress of the COVID-19 vaccine effort: Viruses, vaccines and variants versus efficacy, effectiveness and escape","volume":"21","author":"Tregoning","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2798-3","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in development","volume":"586","author":"Krammer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"840","DOI":"10.1038\/s41587-022-01294-2","article-title":"The clinical progress of mRNA vaccines and immunotherapies","volume":"40","author":"Barbier","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10604","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkab764","article-title":"Theoretical basis for stabilizing messenger RNA through secondary structure design","volume":"49","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2017.03.016","article-title":"Modified mRNA Vaccines Protect against Zika Virus Infection","volume":"169","author":"Richner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"1365","article-title":"Moderna\u2019s mRNA Vaccine for Seasonal Flu Enters Clinical Trials","volume":"326","author":"Abbasi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Jama"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2020.12.070","article-title":"Proof-of-Concept of a low-dose unmodified mRNA-based rabies vaccine formulated with lipid nanoparticles in human volunteers: A phase 1 trial","volume":"39","author":"Aldrich","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14630","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms14630","article-title":"Administration of nucleoside-modified mRNA encoding broadly neutralizing antibody protects humanized mice from HIV-1 challenge","volume":"8","author":"Pardi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.4155\/tde-2016-0006","article-title":"mRNA vaccine delivery using lipid nanoparticles","volume":"7","author":"Reichmuth","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ther. Deliv."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118919","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2020.118919","article-title":"DNA vaccines against COVID-19: Perspectives and challenges","volume":"267","author":"Silveira","year":"2021","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1281","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(22)00524-4","article-title":"DNA vaccines join the fight against COVID-19","volume":"399","author":"Blakney","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.2217\/fvl-2021-0170","article-title":"A brief review on DNA vaccines in the era of COVID-19","volume":"17","author":"Shafaati","year":"2021","journal-title":"Future Virol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd2224","article-title":"More than one reason to rethink the use of peptides in vaccine design","volume":"6","author":"Purcell","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1586\/14760584.6.4.591","article-title":"Design and development of synthetic peptide vaccines: Past, present and future","volume":"6","author":"Bijker","year":"2007","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1039\/C5SC03892H","article-title":"Peptide-Based synthetic vaccines","volume":"7","author":"Skwarczynski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"2336","article-title":"Enhancing immunogenicity of a CTL epitope from carcinoembryonic antigen by selective amino acid replacements","volume":"8","author":"Huarte","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, H., Ansari, H.R., and Raghava, G.P. (2013). Improved method for linear B-cell epitope prediction using antigen\u2019s primary sequence. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0062216"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2016.05.001","article-title":"Vaccine technologies: From whole organisms to rationally designed protein assemblies","volume":"120","author":"Karch","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cordeiro, A.S., Patil-Sen, Y., Shivkumar, M., Patel, R., Khedr, A., and Elsawy, M.A. (2021). Nanovaccine Delivery Approaches and Advanced Delivery Systems for the Prevention of Viral Infections: From Development to Clinical Application. Pharmaceutics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics13122091"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/s40824-019-0166-x","article-title":"Therapeutic efficacy of nanoparticles and routes of administration","volume":"23","author":"Chenthamara","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biomater. Res."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Herman, T.F., and Santos, C. (2019). First Pass Effect, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/S1359-6446(00)01600-7","article-title":"Innovations in oral gene delivery: Challenges and potentials","volume":"6","author":"Page","year":"2001","journal-title":"Drug Discov. Today"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramvikas, M., Arumugam, M., Chakrabarti, S.R., and Jaganathan, K.S. (2017). Nasal vaccine delivery. Micro and Nanotechnology in Vaccine Development, William Andrew Applied Science Publishers.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-39981-4.00015-4"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2024998118","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2024998118","article-title":"Intranasal vaccination with influenza HA\/GO-PEI nanoparticles provides immune protection against homo- and heterologous strains","volume":"118","author":"Dong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wells, A.I., and Coyne, C.B. (2019). Enteroviruses: A Gut-Wrenching Game of Entry, Detection, and Evasion. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11050460"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd2153","article-title":"Inhaling medicines: Delivering drugs to the body through the lungs","volume":"6","author":"Patton","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2008.02.011","article-title":"Inhaled nanoparticles\u2014A current review","volume":"356","author":"Yang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perego, G., Vigezzi, G.P., Cocciolo, G., Chiappa, F., Salvati, S., Balzarini, F., Odone, A., Signorelli, C., and Gianfredi, V. (2021). Safety and Efficacy of Spray Intranasal Live Attenuated Influenza Vaccine: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Vaccines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines9090998"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Palmer, B.C., and DeLouise, L.A. (2016). Nanoparticle-Enabled Transdermal Drug Delivery Systems for Enhanced Dose Control and Tissue Targeting. Molecules, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules21121719"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1050","DOI":"10.3762\/bjnano.9.98","article-title":"Review on nanoparticles and nanostructured materials: History, sources, toxicity and regulations","volume":"9","author":"Jeevanandam","year":"2018","journal-title":"Beilstein J. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gomes, A.C., Mohsen, M., and Bachmann, M.F. (2017). Harnessing Nanoparticles for Immunomodulation and Vaccines. Vaccines, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines5010006"},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"S50","article-title":"Dendritic cell engineering for selective targeting of female reproductive tract cancers","volume":"148","author":"Bhargava","year":"2018","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"5231","article-title":"Targeting human dendritic cells via DEC-205 using PLGA nanoparticles leads to enhanced cross-presentation of a melanoma-associated antigen","volume":"9","author":"Saluja","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1945","DOI":"10.2217\/nnm-2017-0088","article-title":"C-Type lectin receptor(s)-targeted nanoliposomes: An intelligent approach for effective cancer immunotherapy","volume":"12","author":"Sharma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nanomedicine"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2017.03.033","article-title":"Synthetic nanovaccines for immunotherapy","volume":"263","author":"Luo","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6913","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.macromol.2c00854","article-title":"Immunostimulatory Polymers as Adjuvants, Immunotherapies, and Delivery Systems","volume":"55","author":"Weiss","year":"2022","journal-title":"Macromolecules"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23593","DOI":"10.1038\/srep23593","article-title":"\u03b1-Galactosylceramide protects swine against influenza infection when administered as a vaccine adjuvant","volume":"6","author":"Artiaga","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"236","article-title":"Natural killer T cells in health and disease","volume":"3","author":"Wu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Front. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1224","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.1206718","article-title":"NKT cells direct monocytes into a DC differentiation pathway","volume":"81","author":"Hegde","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2020.05.017","article-title":"Distinct iNKT Cell Populations Use IFN\u03b3 or ER Stress-Induced IL-10 to Control Adipose Tissue Homeostasis","volume":"32","author":"LaMarche","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.3047","article-title":"Regulatory iNKT cells lack expression of the transcription factor PLZF and control the homeostasis of T(reg) cells and macrophages in adipose tissue","volume":"16","author":"Lynch","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1038\/35097097","article-title":"A synthetic glycolipid prevents autoimmune encephalomyelitis by inducing TH2 bias of natural killer T cells","volume":"413","author":"Miyamoto","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8816","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M111.304758","article-title":"Interleukin-22 is produced by invariant natural killer T lymphocytes during influenza A virus infection: Potential role in protection against lung epithelial damages","volume":"287","author":"Paget","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1152","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.01152","article-title":"Functional Invariant Natural Killer T Cells Secreting Cytokines Are Associated with Non-Progressive Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 Infection but Not with Suppressive Anti-Retroviral Treatment","volume":"9","author":"Singh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jksus.2022.102124","article-title":"Encapsulation of MERS antigen into \u03b1-GalCer-bearing-liposomes elicits stronger effector and memory immune responses in immunocompetent and leukopenic mice","volume":"34","author":"Khan","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. King Saud Univ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1610","DOI":"10.1039\/C5TB01825K","article-title":"Materials design at the interface of nanoparticles and innate immunity","volume":"4","author":"Szeto","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-021-00687-0","article-title":"Pattern recognition receptors in health and diseases","volume":"6","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.2217\/nnm.16.5","article-title":"The effect of nanoparticle size on in vivo pharmacokinetics and cellular interaction","volume":"11","author":"Hoshyar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lengyel, M., K\u00e1llai-Szab\u00f3, N., Antal, V., Laki, A.J., and Antal, I. (2019). Microparticles, Microspheres, and Microcapsules for Advanced Drug Delivery. Sci. Pharm., 87.","DOI":"10.3390\/scipharm87030020"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Humeniuk, P., Dubiela, P., and Hoffmann-Sommergruber, K. (2017). Dendritic Cells and Their Role in Allergy: Uptake, Proteolytic Processing and Presentation of Allergens. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms18071491"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2015.00001","article-title":"Macropinocytosis in phagocytes: Regulation of MHC class-II-restricted antigen presentation in dendritic cells","volume":"6","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2224","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.02224","article-title":"Nanoparticle Vaccines Against Infectious Diseases","volume":"9","author":"Pati","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/S0264-410X(02)00435-8","article-title":"Size dependent immune response after subcutaneous, oral and intranasal administration of BSA loaded nanospheres","volume":"21","author":"Gutierro","year":"2002","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5344","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2007.08.015","article-title":"Interactions of antigen-loaded polylactide particles with macrophages and their correlation with the immune response","volume":"28","author":"Kanchan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3827","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-04229-z","article-title":"The Effect of shape on Cellular Uptake of Gold Nanoparticles in the forms of Stars, Rods, and Triangles","volume":"7","author":"Xie","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2016.07.051","article-title":"Role of nanoparticle size, shape and surface chemistry in oral drug delivery","volume":"238","author":"Banerjee","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2008.05.021","article-title":"Subcellular compartment targeting of layered double hydroxide nanoparticles","volume":"130","author":"Xu","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2022.03.011","article-title":"Nano toolbox in immune modulation and nanovaccines","volume":"40","author":"Azharuddin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nano.2015.11.002","article-title":"Nanoparticle surface charge impacts distribution, uptake and lymph node trafficking by pulmonary antigen-presenting cells","volume":"12","author":"Fromen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nanomed. Nanotechnol. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5000","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.molpharmaceut.9b00860","article-title":"Rational Design of PLGA Nanoparticle Vaccine Delivery Systems to Improve Immune Responses","volume":"16","author":"Gu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2959","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2007.03.006","article-title":"The effect of surface charge on the uptake and biological function of mesoporous silica nanoparticles in 3T3-L1 cells and human mesenchymal stem cells","volume":"28","author":"Chung","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3818","article-title":"The ins and outs of MHC class II-mediated antigen processing and presentation","volume":"15","author":"Roche","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1016\/j.it.2013.07.006","article-title":"Dendritic cells and other innate determinants of T helper cell polarisation","volume":"34","author":"Walsh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trends Immunol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1038\/s41565-020-00790-3","article-title":"Eliciting B cell immunity against infectious diseases using nanovaccines","volume":"16","author":"Singh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coi.2013.11.001","article-title":"The ins-and-outs of endosomal antigens for cross-presentation","volume":"26","author":"Schuette","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20050821","article-title":"Type I interferons act directly on CD8 T cells to allow clonal expansion and memory formation in response to viral infection","volume":"202","author":"Kolumam","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3254","article-title":"Cross-presentation by dendritic cells","volume":"12","author":"Joffre","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.2612","article-title":"Image-Based analysis of lipid nanoparticle-mediated siRNA delivery, intracellular trafficking and endosomal escape","volume":"31","author":"Gilleron","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1700426","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.201700426","article-title":"Turning the Old Adjuvant from Gel to Nanoparticles to Amplify CD8(+) T Cell Responses","volume":"5","author":"Jiang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thi, T.T.H., Suys, E.J.A., Lee, J.S., Nguyen, D.H., Park, K.D., and Truong, N.P. (2021). Lipid-Based Nanoparticles in the Clinic and Clinical Trials: From Cancer Nanomedicine to COVID-19 Vaccines. Vaccines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines9040359"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1038\/s41418-020-00720-9","article-title":"COVID-19 vaccines: Where we stand and challenges ahead","volume":"28","author":"Forni","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Death Differ."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120586","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2021.120586","article-title":"mRNA-lipid nanoparticle COVID-19 vaccines: Structure and stability","volume":"601","author":"Schoenmaker","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16982","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.1c04996","article-title":"Lipid Nanoparticles-From Liposomes to mRNA Vaccine Delivery, a Landscape of Research Diversity and Advancement","volume":"15","author":"Tenchov","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2035389","article-title":"Efficacy and Safety of the mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine","volume":"384","author":"Baden","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2603","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2034577","article-title":"Safety and Efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 Vaccine","volume":"383","author":"Polack","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2136","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01583-4","article-title":"BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273 COVID-19 vaccine effectiveness against the SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant in Qatar","volume":"27","author":"Tang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, K., Choi, A., Koch, M., Ma, L., Hill, A., Nunna, N., Huang, W., Oestreicher, J., Colpitts, T., and Bennett, H. (2021). Preliminary Analysis of Safety and Immunogenicity of a SARS-CoV-2 Variant Vaccine Booster. medRxiv, 2021.2005.2005.21256716.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.05.05.21256716"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3523","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-17409-9","article-title":"Self-amplifying RNA SARS-CoV-2 lipid nanoparticle vaccine candidate induces high neutralizing antibody titers in mice","volume":"11","author":"McKay","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2017.08.033","article-title":"Advances in the design of solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers for targeting brain diseases","volume":"264","author":"Tapeinos","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2012.03.020","article-title":"Doxil\u00ae\u2014The first FDA-approved nano-drug: Lessons learned","volume":"160","author":"Barenholz","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tandrup Schmidt, S., Foged, C., Korsholm, K.S., Rades, T., and Christensen, D. (2016). Liposome-Based Adjuvants for Subunit Vaccines: Formulation Strategies for Subunit Antigens and Immunostimulators. Pharmaceutics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics8010007"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiy238","article-title":"A Lipid\/DNA Adjuvant-Inactivated Influenza Virus Vaccine Protects Rhesus Macaques from Uncontrolled Virus Replication After Heterosubtypic Influenza A Virus Challenge","volume":"218","author":"Carroll","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6699","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S178809","article-title":"Liposomal nanoparticle-based conserved peptide influenza vaccine and monosodium urate crystal adjuvant elicit protective immune response in pigs","volume":"13","author":"Dhakal","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129392","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2021.129392","article-title":"Inhalable nanovaccine with biomimetic coronavirus structure to trigger mucosal immunity of respiratory tract against COVID-19","volume":"418","author":"Zheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1377","DOI":"10.3390\/polym3031377","article-title":"Poly Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid (PLGA) as Biodegradable Controlled Drug Delivery Carrier","volume":"3","author":"Makadia","year":"2011","journal-title":"Polymers"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4445","DOI":"10.1016\/S0264-410X(01)00192-X","article-title":"Biodegradable PLGA microspheres as a delivery system for malaria synthetic peptide SPf66","volume":"19","author":"Rosas","year":"2001","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, K., Li, W., Huang, T., Luo, X., Chen, G., Zhang, Y., Guo, C., Dai, C., Jin, Z., and Zhao, Y. (2013). Preparation and efficacy of Newcastle disease virus DNA vaccine encapsulated in PLGA nanoparticles. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0082648"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2011.01.045","article-title":"Comparison of humoral and cell-mediated immune responses to cationic PLGA microspheres containing recombinant hepatitis B antigen","volume":"408","author":"Saini","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2016.12.039","article-title":"Biodegradable nanoparticle delivery of inactivated swine influenza virus vaccine provides heterologous cell-mediated immune response in pigs","volume":"247","author":"Dhakal","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2018.12.063","article-title":"PLGA encapsulated inactivated-viral vaccine: Formulation and evaluation of its protective efficacy against viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus (VHSV) infection in olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) vaccinated by mucosal delivery routes","volume":"37","author":"Kole","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2021.02.010","article-title":"Enhanced immunogenicity of foot and mouth disease DNA vaccine delivered by PLGA nanoparticles combined with cytokine adjuvants","volume":"136","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2019.115128","article-title":"Polyethylenimine-coated PLGA nanoparticles-encapsulated Angelica sinensis polysaccharide as an adjuvant to enhance immune responses","volume":"223","author":"Gu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e120692","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.120692","article-title":"TLR-Adjuvanted nanoparticle vaccines differentially influence the quality and longevity of responses to malaria antigen Pfs25","volume":"3","author":"Thompson","year":"2018","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alkie, T.N., Yitbarek, A., Taha-Abdelaziz, K., Astill, J., and Sharif, S. (2018). Characterization of immunogenicity of avian influenza antigens encapsulated in PLGA nanoparticles following mucosal and subcutaneous delivery in chickens. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0206324"},{"key":"ref_107","first-page":"411","article-title":"Chitin and Chitosan: Production and Application of Versatile Biomedical Nanomaterials","volume":"4","author":"Hamblin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Res."},{"key":"ref_108","unstructured":"Kumar, A., and Kumar, A. (2017). Chitosan as a biomedical material: Properties and applications. Biopolymers: Structure, Performance and Applications, Nova Science Publishers."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aderibigbe, B.A., and Naki, T. (2019). Chitosan-Based Nanocarriers for Nose to Brain Delivery. Appl. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/app9112219"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643953","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2021.643953","article-title":"Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles Against Viral Infections","volume":"11","author":"Boroumand","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, Y., Tan, Y.F., Wong, Y.S., Liew, M.W.J., and Venkatraman, S. (2019). Recent advances in chitosan-based carriers for gene delivery. Mar. Drugs, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/md17060381"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2016.02.004","article-title":"The Vaccine Adjuvant Chitosan Promotes Cellular Immunity via DNA Sensor cGAS-STING-Dependent Induction of Type I Interferons","volume":"44","author":"Carroll","year":"2016","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/S1097-2765(02)00599-3","article-title":"The inflammasome: A molecular platform triggering activation of inflammatory caspases and processing of proIL-beta","volume":"10","author":"Martinon","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.immunol.021908.132612","article-title":"Immunological and inflammatory functions of the interleukin-1 family","volume":"27","author":"Dinarello","year":"2009","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.00211","article-title":"NLRP3 Inflammasome-A Key Player in Antiviral Responses","volume":"11","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1186\/s13567-020-00762-4","article-title":"Intranasally administered protein coated chitosan nanoparticles encapsulating influenza H9N2 HA2 and M2e mRNA molecules elicit protective immunity against avian influenza viruses in chickens","volume":"51","author":"Hajam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S54226","article-title":"Preparation and efficacy of Newcastle disease virus DNA vaccine encapsulated in chitosan nanoparticles","volume":"9","author":"Zhao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2014.08.032","article-title":"Rabbit nasal immunization against influenza by dry-powder form of chitosan nanospheres encapsulated with influenza whole virus and adjuvants","volume":"475","author":"Dehghan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xing, L., Fan, Y.T., Zhou, T.J., Gong, J.H., Cui, L.H., Cho, K.H., Choi, Y.J., Jiang, H.L., and Cho, C.S. (2018). Chemical Modification of Chitosan for Efficient Vaccine Delivery. Molecules, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules23020229"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2014.05.036","article-title":"Alginate\/chitosan nanoparticles for encapsulation and controlled release of vitamin B2","volume":"71","author":"Azevedo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.2174\/2211738508666210108121541","article-title":"Poloxamer Modified Chitosan Nanoparticles for Vaginal Delivery of Acyclovir","volume":"9","author":"Deshkar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pharm. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1002\/pat.861","article-title":"Immune stimulating activity of an atrophic rhinitis vaccine associated to pegylated chitosan microspheres in vitro","volume":"18","author":"Jiang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Polym. Adv. Technol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpb.2013.06.017","article-title":"Development and characterization of surface modified PLGA nanoparticles for nasal vaccine delivery: Effect of mucoadhesive coating on antigen uptake and immune adjuvant activity","volume":"85","author":"Pawar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2012.04.056","article-title":"N,N,N-Trimethyl chitosan nanoparticles for controlled intranasal delivery of HBV surface antigen","volume":"89","author":"Subbiah","year":"2012","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3083.2009.02319.x","article-title":"Mucosal immunity: Induction, dissemination, and effector functions","volume":"70","author":"Brandtzaeg","year":"2009","journal-title":"Scand. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2014.06.050","article-title":"M cell-targeting strategy facilitates mucosal immune response and enhances protection against CVB3-induced viral myocarditis elicited by chitosan-DNA vaccine","volume":"32","author":"Ye","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.1978.58.2.317","article-title":"Ferritin: Structure, biosynthesis, and role in iron metabolism","volume":"58","author":"Munro","year":"1978","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5705","DOI":"10.1021\/bi300752r","article-title":"Mechanisms of mammalian iron homeostasis","volume":"51","author":"Pantopoulos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodrigues, M.Q., Alves, P.M., and Rold\u00e3o, A. (2021). Functionalizing Ferritin Nanoparticles for Vaccine Development. Pharmaceutics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics13101621"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12202","article-title":"Self-Assembling influenza nanoparticle vaccines elicit broadly neutralizing H1N1 antibodies","volume":"499","author":"Kanekiyo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1186\/s12977-015-0210-4","article-title":"Presenting native-like HIV-1 envelope trimers on ferritin nanoparticles improves their immunogenicity","volume":"12","author":"Sliepen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Retrovirology"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1065","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.3927","article-title":"Hemagglutinin-Stem nanoparticles generate heterosubtypic influenza protection","volume":"21","author":"Yassine","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01660-8","article-title":"Safety and immunogenicity of a ferritin nanoparticle H2 influenza vaccine in healthy adults: A phase 1 trial","volume":"28","author":"Houser","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1021\/acscentsci.0c01405","article-title":"A Single Immunization with Spike-Functionalized Ferritin Vaccines Elicits Neutralizing Antibody Responses against SARS-CoV-2 in Mice","volume":"7","author":"Powell","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Cent. Sci."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-021-00414-4","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 ferritin nanoparticle vaccine induces robust innate immune activity driving polyfunctional spike-specific T cell responses","volume":"6","author":"Carmen","year":"2021","journal-title":"NPJ Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbpa.2015.10.002","article-title":"Secrets of a covalent interaction for biomaterials and biotechnology: SpyTag and SpyCatcher","volume":"29","author":"Reddington","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-021-00643-6","article-title":"Ferritin nanoparticle-based SARS-CoV-2 RBD vaccine induces a persistent antibody response and long-term memory in mice","volume":"18","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eliaz, N., and Metoki, N. (2017). Calcium Phosphate Bioceramics: A Review of Their History, Structure, Properties, Coating Technologies and Biomedical Applications. Materials, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma10040334"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2007.05.017","article-title":"Nanotechnology in vaccine delivery","volume":"60","author":"Peek","year":"2008","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"788373","DOI":"10.3389\/fmats.2021.788373","article-title":"The Potential of Calcium Phosphate Nanoparticles as Adjuvants and Vaccine Delivery Vehicles","volume":"8","author":"Sun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Mater."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mucalo, M. (2015). 1\u2014Structure and properties of hydroxyapatite for biomedical applications. Hydroxyapatite (Hap) for Biomedical Applications, Woodhead Publishing.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-1-78242-033-0.00014-6"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfb.2015.05.014","article-title":"An insight into functionalized calcium based inorganic nanomaterials in biomedicine: Trends and transitions","volume":"133","author":"Sharma","year":"2015","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1401","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2011.11.017","article-title":"Calcium phosphate ceramic systems in growth factor and drug delivery for bone tissue engineering: A review","volume":"8","author":"Bose","year":"2012","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595888","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2020.595888","article-title":"Role of Endolysosomes in Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 Infection and Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pathogenesis: Implications for Potential Treatments","volume":"11","author":"Khan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"899","DOI":"10.1128\/CDLI.7.6.899-903.2000","article-title":"Calcium phosphate nanoparticle adjuvant","volume":"7","author":"He","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johnson, L., Duschl, A., and Himly, M. (2020). Nanotechnology-Based Vaccines for Allergen-Specific Immunotherapy: Potentials and Challenges of Conventional and Novel Adjuvants under Research. Vaccines, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines8020237"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.7774\/cevr.2015.4.1.88","article-title":"Systemic antibody response to nano-size calcium phospate biocompatible adjuvant adsorbed HEV-71 killed vaccine","volume":"4","author":"Saeed","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Vaccine Res."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2612","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2017.1369639","article-title":"A novel immunization approach for dengue infection based on conserved T cell epitopes formulated in calcium phosphate nanoparticles","volume":"13","author":"Huang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccines Immunother."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11016","DOI":"10.1021\/jp904481z","article-title":"Effects of heat treatment of calcium hydroxyapatite particles on the protein adsorption behavior","volume":"113","author":"Kandori","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1039\/C1JM14683A","article-title":"Cell targeting by antibody-functionalized calcium phosphate nanoparticles","volume":"22","author":"Kozlova","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm.b.31241","article-title":"Synthesis and characterization of PEGylated calcium phosphate nanoparticles for oral insulin delivery","volume":"88","author":"Ramachandran","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part B Appl. Biomater."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103699","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2021.103699","article-title":"Current and future nanoparticle vaccines for COVID-19","volume":"74","author":"Vu","year":"2021","journal-title":"EBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-04232-5","article-title":"A COVID-19 peptide vaccine for the induction of SARS-CoV-2 T cell immunity","volume":"601","author":"Heitmann","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_154","unstructured":"Joyce, M.G., Chen, W.H., Sankhala, R.S., Hajduczki, A., Thomas, P.V., Choe, M., Chang, W., Peterson, C.E., Martinez, E., and Morrison, E.B. (2021). SARS-CoV-2 ferritin nanoparticle vaccines elicit broad SARS coronavirus immunogenicity. bioRxiv Prepr. Serv. Biol., 2021.05.09.443331."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2106433118","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2106433118","article-title":"Efficacy and breadth of adjuvanted SARS-CoV-2 receptor-binding domain nanoparticle vaccine in macaques","volume":"118","author":"King","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e25831","DOI":"10.1002\/jia2.25831","article-title":"Strategies for induction of HIV-1 envelope-reactive broadly neutralizing antibodies","volume":"24","author":"Williams","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Int. AIDS Soc."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682286","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.682286","article-title":"Nano and Microparticles as Potential Oral Vaccine Carriers and Adjuvants Against Infectious Diseases","volume":"12","author":"Jazayeri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsb.2018.06.005","article-title":"Adapting liposomes for oral drug delivery","volume":"9","author":"He","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Pharm. Sinica. B"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2017.04.008","article-title":"Current state and challenges in developing oral vaccines","volume":"114","author":"Sharpe","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2013.09.007","article-title":"Ligand-targeted liposome design: Challenges and fundamental considerations","volume":"32","author":"Noble","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejmech.2019.01.007","article-title":"Composition design and medical application of liposomes","volume":"164","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_162","first-page":"S5","article-title":"Liposomal drug delivery system from laboratory to clinic","volume":"51","author":"Kshirsagar","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Postgrad. Med."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, M.K. (2020). Liposomes for Enhanced Bioavailability of Water-Insoluble Drugs: In Vivo Evidence and Recent Approaches. Pharmaceutics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics12030264"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nimesh, S. (2013). 15-Poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide)-based nanoparticles. Gene Therapy, Woodhead Publishing.","DOI":"10.1533\/9781908818645.309"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cappellano, G., Comi, C., Chiocchetti, A., and Dianzani, U. (2019). Exploiting PLGA-Based Biocompatible Nanoparticles for Next-Generation Tolerogenic Vaccines against Autoimmune Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20010204"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm.a.30131","article-title":"Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) enhances maturation of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells","volume":"71","author":"Yoshida","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part A"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2012.01.043","article-title":"PLGA-based nanoparticles: An overview of biomedical applications","volume":"161","author":"Danhier","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2021.120340","article-title":"Formulation of stabilizer-free, nontoxic PLGA and elastin-PLGA nanoparticle delivery systems","volume":"597","author":"Stromberg","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1002\/jat.3247","article-title":"Influence of the surface charge of PLGA nanoparticles on their in vitro genotoxicity, cytotoxicity, ROS production and endocytosis","volume":"36","author":"Platel","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Appl. Toxicol. JAT"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6053","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.0c01228","article-title":"Phenomenology of the Initial Burst Release of Drugs from PLGA Microparticles","volume":"6","author":"Yoo","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S40579","article-title":"Concepts and practices used to develop functional PLGA-based nanoparticulate systems","volume":"8","author":"Sah","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1300","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms10031300","article-title":"In vitro models in biocompatibility assessment for biomedical-grade chitosan derivatives in wound management","volume":"10","author":"Keong","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2011.03.056","article-title":"Mechanism and consequence of chitosan-mediated reversible epithelial tight junction opening","volume":"32","author":"Yeh","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1007\/s10967-011-1310-9","article-title":"Water-Soluble derivatives of chitosan as a target delivery system of 99mTc to some organs in vivo for nuclear imaging and biodistribution","volume":"290","author":"Hawary","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/S0144-8617(00)00288-5","article-title":"Acid hydrolysis of chitosans","volume":"46","year":"2001","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.taap.2010.08.029","article-title":"Uptake and cytotoxicity of chitosan nanoparticles in human liver cells","volume":"249","author":"Loh","year":"2010","journal-title":"Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1652","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-022-00859-0","article-title":"Ferritin\u2014A multifaceted protein scaffold for biotherapeutics","volume":"54","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Levingstone, T.J., Herbaj, S., Redmond, J., McCarthy, H.O., and Dunne, N.J. (2020). Calcium Phosphate Nanoparticles-Based Systems for RNAi Delivery: Applications in Bone Tissue Regeneration. Nanomaterials, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano10010146"},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Levingstone, T.J., Herbaj, S., and Dunne, N.J. (2019). Calcium Phosphate Nanoparticles for Therapeutic Applications in Bone Regeneration. Nanomaterials, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano9111570"},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.powtec.2012.08.030","article-title":"A novel low temperature sol\u2013gel synthesis process for thermally stable nano crystalline hydroxyapatite","volume":"233","author":"Bakan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Powder Technol."},{"key":"ref_181","first-page":"667","article-title":"Chemotherapy drug delivery from calcium phosphate nanoparticles","volume":"2","author":"Cheng","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1654","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm.a.36681","article-title":"Synthesis and characterization of biomimetic bioceramic nanoparticles with optimized physicochemical properties for bone tissue engineering","volume":"107","author":"Ebrahimi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part A"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1324","DOI":"10.1039\/c0nr00017e","article-title":"Flame spray pyrolysis: An enabling technology for nanoparticles design and fabrication","volume":"2","author":"Teoh","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1186\/1556-276X-6-255","article-title":"Production of nanoparticles from natural hydroxylapatite by laser ablation","volume":"6","author":"Boutinguiza","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nanoscale Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phpro.2011.03.105","article-title":"Production of Calcium Phosphate Nanoparticles by Laser Ablation in Liquid","volume":"12","author":"Boutinguiza","year":"2011","journal-title":"Phys. Procedia"}],"container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/14\/12\/2554\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:24:08Z","timestamp":1760145848000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/14\/12\/2554"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,22]]},"references-count":185,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]}},"alternative-id":["pharmaceutics14122554"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pharmaceutics14122554","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4923"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4923","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,22]]}}}