{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T00:30:59Z","timestamp":1792801859555,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,14]],"date-time":"2022-12-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1670976000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the German Center for Infection Research (DZIF)"},{"name":"the University of T\u00fcbingen"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Methylene blue (MB) is the oldest synthetic anti-infective. Its high potency against asexual and sexual stages of malaria parasites is well documented. This study aimed to investigate possible additional activities of MB in interfering with parasite transmission and determine target stages in Anopheles vectors and humans. MB\u2019s transmission-blocking activity was first evaluated by an ex vivo direct membrane feeding assay (DMFA) using Plasmodium falciparum field isolates. To investigate anti-mosquito stage activity, Plasmodium berghei-infected Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes were fed a second blood meal on mice that had been treated with methylene blue, 3, 6- and 15-days after the initial infectious blood meal. Anti-sporozoite and liver stage activities were evaluated in vitro and in vivo via sporozoite invasion and liver stage development assays, respectively. MB exhibited a robust inhibition of P. falciparum transmission in An. gambiae, even when added shortly before the DMFA but only a moderate effect against P. berghei oocyst development. Exposure of mature P. berghei and P. falciparum sporozoites to MB blocked hepatocyte invasion, yet P. berghei liver stage development was unaffected by MB. Our results indicate previously underappreciated rapid specific activities of methylene blue against Plasmodium transmission stages, preventing the establishment of both mosquito midgut and liver infections as the first essential steps in both hosts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics14122794","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,14]],"date-time":"2022-12-14T02:22:41Z","timestamp":1670984561000},"page":"2794","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Rapid and Specific Action of Methylene Blue against Plasmodium Transmission Stages"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Nathana\u00ebl","family":"Saison","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre de Recherches M\u00e9dicales de Lambar\u00e9n\u00e9, Lambar\u00e9n\u00e9 1437, Gabon"},{"name":"Institute for Tropical Medicine, University of T\u00fcbingen, 72074 T\u00fcbingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jean-Fran\u00e7ois","family":"Franetich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre d\u2019Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, Inserm, CNRS, Sorbonne Universit\u00e9, U1135, ERL8255, CIMI-Paris, F-75013 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yudi T.","family":"Pinilla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Tropical Medicine, University of T\u00fcbingen, 72074 T\u00fcbingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3124-2067","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anton","family":"Hoffmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre de Recherches M\u00e9dicales de Lambar\u00e9n\u00e9, Lambar\u00e9n\u00e9 1437, Gabon"},{"name":"Institute for Tropical Medicine, University of T\u00fcbingen, 72074 T\u00fcbingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stravensky T.","family":"Boussougou-Sambe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre de Recherches M\u00e9dicales de Lambar\u00e9n\u00e9, Lambar\u00e9n\u00e9 1437, Gabon"},{"name":"Institute for Tropical Medicine, University of T\u00fcbingen, 72074 T\u00fcbingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Barclaye","family":"Ngossanga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre de Recherches M\u00e9dicales de Lambar\u00e9n\u00e9, Lambar\u00e9n\u00e9 1437, Gabon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maurel","family":"Tefit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre d\u2019Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, Inserm, CNRS, Sorbonne Universit\u00e9, U1135, ERL8255, CIMI-Paris, F-75013 Paris, 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CIMI-Paris, F-75013 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ayola A.","family":"Adegnika","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre de Recherches M\u00e9dicales de Lambar\u00e9n\u00e9, Lambar\u00e9n\u00e9 1437, Gabon"},{"name":"Institute for Tropical Medicine, University of T\u00fcbingen, 72074 T\u00fcbingen, Germany"},{"name":"German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site T\u00fcbingen, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dominique","family":"Mazier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre d\u2019Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, Inserm, CNRS, Sorbonne Universit\u00e9, U1135, ERL8255, CIMI-Paris, F-75013 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steffen","family":"Borrmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre de Recherches M\u00e9dicales de Lambar\u00e9n\u00e9, Lambar\u00e9n\u00e9 1437, Gabon"},{"name":"Institute for Tropical Medicine, University of T\u00fcbingen, 72074 T\u00fcbingen, Germany"},{"name":"German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site T\u00fcbingen, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2021). 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