{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T16:22:29Z","timestamp":1780503749545,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":169,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,14]],"date-time":"2024-04-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1713052800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003725","name":"National Research Foundation of Korea","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NRF-2020R1I1A3073930"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2020R1I1A3073930"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003725","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Tuberculous meningitis (TBM) presents a critical neurologic emergency characterized by high mortality and morbidity rates, necessitating immediate therapeutic intervention, often ahead of definitive microbiological and molecular diagnoses. The primary hurdle in effective TBM treatment is the blood\u2013brain barrier (BBB), which significantly restricts the delivery of anti-tuberculous medications to the central nervous system (CNS), leading to subtherapeutic drug levels and poor treatment outcomes. The standard regimen for initial TBM treatment frequently falls short, followed by adverse side effects, vasculitis, and hydrocephalus, driving the condition toward a refractory state. To overcome this obstacle, intrathecal (IT) sustained release of anti-TB medication emerges as a promising approach. This method enables a steady, uninterrupted, and prolonged release of medication directly into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), thus preventing systemic side effects by limiting drug exposure to the rest of the body. Our review diligently investigates the existing literature and treatment methodologies, aiming to highlight their shortcomings. As part of our enhanced strategy for sustained IT anti-TB delivery, we particularly seek to explore the utilization of nanoparticle-infused hydrogels containing isoniazid (INH) and rifampicin (RIF), alongside osmotic pump usage, as innovative treatments for TBM. This comprehensive review delineates an optimized framework for the management of TBM, including an integrated approach that combines pharmacokinetic insights, concomitant drug administration strategies, and the latest advancements in IT and intraventricular (IVT) therapy for CNS infections. By proposing a multifaceted treatment strategy, this analysis aims to enhance the clinical outcomes for TBM patients, highlighting the critical role of targeted drug delivery in overcoming the formidable challenges presented by the blood\u2013brain barrier and the complex pathophysiology of TBM.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics16040540","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,15]],"date-time":"2024-04-15T11:53:53Z","timestamp":1713182033000},"page":"540","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Comprehensive Therapeutic Approaches to Tuberculous Meningitis: Pharmacokinetics, Combined Dosing, and Advanced Intrathecal Therapies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4758-5766","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmad Khalid","family":"Madadi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Science, Graduate School of Medicine, Inje University, 75, Bokji-ro, Busanjin-gu, Busan 47392, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1796-766X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Moon-Jun","family":"Sohn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Science, Graduate School of Medicine, Inje University, 75, Bokji-ro, Busanjin-gu, Busan 47392, Republic of Korea"},{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, Neuroscience & Radiosurgery Hybrid Research Center, College of Medicine, Inje University Ilsan Paik Hospital, 170, Juhwa-ro, Ilsanseo-gu, Goyang City 10380, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marais, S., Pepper, D.J., Schutz, C., Wilkinson, R.J., and Meintjes, G. 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