{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:09:57Z","timestamp":1760144997242,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,4]],"date-time":"2024-06-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1717459200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Departments of Anesthesiology and Neurology, Stanford University"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Objective: Following a mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI), the most prevalent and profoundly debilitating occurrence is the emergence of an acute and persistent post-traumatic headache (PTH), for which there are presently no approved treatments. A crucial gap in knowledge exists regarding the consequences of an mTBI, which could serve as a foundation for the development of therapeutic approaches. The activation of trigeminal sensory nerve terminals that innervate the calvarial periosteum (CP)\u2014a densely innervated tissue layer covering the calvarial skull\u2014has been implicated in both migraines and PTHs. We have previously shown that trigeminal oxytocin receptors (OTRs) may provide a therapeutic target for PTHs. This study examined the expression of oxytocin receptors on trigeminal nerves innervating the periosteum and whether these receptors might serve as a therapeutic target for PTHs using a direct application of oxytocin to the periosteum in a rodent model of PTH. Methods: We used retrograde tracing and immunohistochemistry to determine if trigeminal ganglion (TG) neurons innervating the periosteum expressed OTRs and\/or CGRPs. To model the impact of local inflammation that occurs following an mTBI, we applied chemical inflammatory mediators directly to the CP and assessed for changes in immediate-early gene expression as an indication of neuronal activation. We also determined whether mTBI would lead to expression changes to OTR levels. To determine whether these OTRs could be a viable therapeutic target, we assessed the impact of oxytocin injections into the CP in a mouse model of PTH-induced periorbital allodynia. Results: The results of these experiments demonstrate the following: (1) the cell bodies of CP afferents reside in the TG and express both OTRs and CGRPs; (2) inflammatory chemical stimulation of the periosteum leads to rapid activation of TG neurons (phospho-ERK (p-ERK) expression), (3) mTBI-induced inflammation increased OTR expression compared to the sham group; and (4) administration of oxytocin into the periosteum on day 2 and day 40 blocked cutaneous allodynia for up to one hour post-administration for both acute and persistence phases in the PTH model\u2014an effect that was preventable by the administration of an OTR antagonist. Conclusion: Taken together, our observations suggest that periosteal trigeminal afferents contribute to post-TBI craniofacial pain, and that periosteum tissue can be used as a potential local target for therapeutics such as oxytocin.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics16060760","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,4]],"date-time":"2024-06-04T05:17:30Z","timestamp":1717478250000},"page":"760","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Oxytocin Receptors on Calvarial Periosteal Innervation: Therapeutic Target for Post-Traumatic Headache?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6243-0861","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vimala N.","family":"Bharadwaj","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Klukinov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Robert Paul","family":"Cowan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nazanin","family":"Mahinparvar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"David John","family":"Clark","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"},{"name":"Anesthesiology Service, Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, 3801 Miranda Ave (E4-220), Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"David Clifford","family":"Yeomans","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1007\/s11916-010-0117-7","article-title":"Posttraumatic headache: A review","volume":"14","author":"Seifert","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr. 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