{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,8]],"date-time":"2026-04-08T04:05:41Z","timestamp":1775621141728,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,23]],"date-time":"2025-04-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745366400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Naresuan University (NU), Thailand Science Research and Innovation (TSRI), National Science Research and Innovation Fund (NSRF)","award":["FRB660001\/0179"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FRB660001\/0179"]}]},{"name":"Naresuan University (NU), Thailand Science Research and Innovation (TSRI), National Science Research and Innovation Fund (NSRF)","award":["R2566B016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R2566B016"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) of Thailand under the Thai Government Science and Technology Scholarship","award":["FRB660001\/0179"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FRB660001\/0179"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) of Thailand under the Thai Government Science and Technology Scholarship","award":["R2566B016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R2566B016"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Objective: This study aimed to develop and characterize the physicochemical properties of a self-emulsion drug delivery system (SNEDDS) incorporating galangal extract (GE) and lemongrass oil (LGO). Then, to develop mouthwash powders containing GE- and LGO-loaded SNEDDS (GL-mouthwash powder) as a promising alternative for preventing and treating denture stomatitis. Methods: The solubility of GE in various vehicles was determined. Subsequently, pseudo-ternary phase diagrams of the different ingredients, oil (LGO), surfactant (Tween\u00ae 80), and co-surfactant (Propylene glycol) were selected to develop the SNEDDS. Then, SNEDDS containing GE and LGO (GL-SNEDDS) were prepared and characterized. The optimized liquid GL-SNEDDS was transformed into GL-mouthwash powder by absorbing onto mannitol and blending with a sweetener. Subsequently, various evaluations including drug recovery, moisture content, emulsification time, stability, anti-Candida activity, and in vitro cytotoxicity were performed. Results: The developed SNEDDS formulation improved GE and LGO solubility. The optimized GL-SNEDDS exhibited a small droplet size of 148.2 \u00b1 2.1 nm with a polydispersity index of 0.11 \u00b1 0.03 and a zeta potential of 2.14 \u00b1 0.11 mV. In addition, the GL-mouthwash powder demonstrated a high drug recovery of &gt;80% with a low moisture of &lt;10% and exhibited greater physicochemical stability under accelerated conditions. The developed GL-mouthwash powder rapidly formed a stable nanoemulsion within 2 min after reconstitution. Interestingly, GL-mouthwash powder exhibited strong anti-Candida activity with no toxicity to human fibroblast cells, which demonstrated superior biocompatibility relative to existing commercial products. Conclusions: These findings suggest that GL-mouthwash powder has potential as an alternative prevention and treatment of oral Candida infection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics17050546","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,23]],"date-time":"2025-04-23T06:38:37Z","timestamp":1745390317000},"page":"546","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Development of Herbal Mouthwash Powder Using a Self-Nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery System Containing Galangal Extract and Lemongrass Oil for Oral Candidiasis Treatment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Premnapa","family":"Sisopa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok 65000, Thailand"},{"name":"Department of Health and Cosmetic Product Development, Faculty of Food and Agricultural Technology, Pibulsongkram Rajabhat University, Phitsanulok 65000, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Supaporn","family":"Lamlertthon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Medical Science, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok 65000, Thailand"},{"name":"The Center of Excellence in Medical Biotechnology, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok 65000, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ruchadaporn","family":"Kaomongkolgit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oral Diagnosis, Faculty of Dentistry, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok 65000, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3627-1086","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pratthana","family":"Chomchalao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine and Public Health, Ubon Ratchathani University, Ubon Ratchathani 34190, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8570-0465","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Waree","family":"Tiyaboonchai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok 65000, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Distribution of Candida species in oral candidiasis patients: Association between sites of isolation, ability to form biofilm, and susceptibility to antifungal drugs","volume":"52","author":"Tata","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Assoc. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"1","article-title":"The role of antifungal drugs in the management of denture-associated stomatitis","volume":"2","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. Arab. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1478","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2017.11.127","article-title":"Recent advances in delivery of antifungal agents for therapeutic management of candidiasis","volume":"96","author":"Sawant","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-849X.2011.00774.x","article-title":"Effect of chlorhexidine on denture biofilm accumulation","volume":"21","author":"Cruz","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Prosthodont."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"117","article-title":"Safety and Efficacy of Antimicrobial Mouthrinses in Clinical Practice","volume":"81","author":"Louis","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. Dent. Hyg. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1111\/ger.12278","article-title":"Use of nystatin and chlorhexidine in oral medicine: Properties, indications and pitfalls with focus on geriatric patients","volume":"34","author":"Scheibler","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gerodontology"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castangia, I., Manconi, M., Allaw, M., Perra, M., Orr\u00f9, G., Fais, S., Scano, A., Escribano-Ferrer, E., Ghavam, M., and Rezvani, M. (2022). Mouthwash Formulation Co-Delivering Quercetin and Mint Oil in Liposomes Improved with Glycol and Ethanol and Tailored for Protecting and Tackling Oral Cavity. Antioxidants, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox11020367"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rajendiran, M., Trivedi, H.M., Chen, D., Gajendrareddy, P., and Chen, L. (2021). Recent Development of Active Ingredients in Mouthwashes and Toothpastes for Periodontal Diseases. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26072001"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25431","DOI":"10.3402\/ljm.v9.25431","article-title":"Lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus) essential oil as a potent anti-inflammatory and antifungal drugs","volume":"9","author":"Boukhatem","year":"2014","journal-title":"Libyan J. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sosa, L., Espinoza, L.C., Valarezo, E., Bozal, N., Calpena, A., F\u00e1brega, M.-J., Baldom\u00e0, L., Rinc\u00f3n, M., and Mallandrich, M. (2023). Therapeutic Applications of Essential Oils from Native and Cultivated Ecuadorian Plants: Cutaneous Candidiasis and Dermal Anti-Inflammatory Activity. Molecules, 28.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28155903"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"1725","article-title":"Antifungal Activity of Rhizome coptidis and Alpinia galangal against Candida species","volume":"7","author":"Khodavandi","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Pure Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sajb.2012.06.003","article-title":"Inhibitory effect of lemongrass oil and its major constituents on Candida biofilm and germ tube formation","volume":"81","author":"Taweechaisupapong","year":"2012","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prosdent.2020.12.017","article-title":"Fungicidal and inhibitory efficacy of cinnamon and lemongrass essential oils on Candida albicans biofilm established on acrylic resin: An in vitro study","volume":"125","author":"Choonharuangdej","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Prosthet. Dent."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.7897\/2230-8407.0911266","article-title":"Inhibition of quorum sensing by extracts of Alpinia galanga","volume":"9","author":"Pavithra","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. Res. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.5530\/pj.2018.1.2","article-title":"A review on phytochemical and pharmacological potential of Alpinia galanga","volume":"10","author":"Chouni","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pharmacogn. J."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"455","article-title":"Biological properties of lemongrass: An overview","volume":"21","author":"Olorunnisola","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. Food Res. J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9619","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-016-7807-y","article-title":"Antimicrobial activity, cytotoxicity and chemical analysis of lemongrass essential oil (Cymbopogon flexuosus) and pure citral","volume":"100","author":"Adukwu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2006-961412","article-title":"Toxicity studies on Alpinia galanga and Curcuma longa","volume":"58","author":"Qureshi","year":"1992","journal-title":"Planta Medica"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2004.02.001","article-title":"Self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS) for improved oral delivery of lipophilic drugs","volume":"58","author":"Gursoy","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molliq.2016.02.081","article-title":"Self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) with enhanced solubilization of nystatin for treatment of oral candidiasis: Design, optimization, in vitro and in vivo evaluation","volume":"218","author":"Kassem","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Mol. Liq."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Okonogi, S., Phumat, P., Khongkhunthian, S., Chaijareenont, P., Rades, T., and M\u00fcllertz, A. (2021). Development of Self-Nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery Systems Containing 4-Allylpyrocatechol for Treatment of Oral Infections Caused by Candida albicans. Pharmaceutics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics13020167"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1018","DOI":"10.1080\/10717544.2017.1344335","article-title":"A novel solid self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (S-SNEDDS) for improved stability and oral bioavailability of an oily drug, 1-palmitoyl-2-linoleoyl-3-acetyl-rac-glycerol","volume":"24","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drudis.2008.04.006","article-title":"Development of solid self-emulsifying drug delivery systems: Preparation techniques and dosage forms","volume":"13","author":"Tang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Drug Discov. Today"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchromb.2016.10.001","article-title":"Development and validation of reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography for citral analysis from essential oils","volume":"1036\u20131037","author":"Gaonkar","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. B"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sajb.2021.10.012","article-title":"Development and validation of RP-HPLC method for 1\u2032-Acetoxychavicol acetate (ACA) and its application in optimizing the yield of ACA during its isolation from Alpinia galanga extract as well as its quantification in nanoemulsion","volume":"149","author":"Ramanunny","year":"2022","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpba.2004.10.042","article-title":"LC determination of citral in Cymbopogon citratus volatile oil","volume":"37","author":"Guterres","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20627","DOI":"10.1590\/s2175-97902022e20627","article-title":"Development and validation of a reversed-phase HPLC method for quantification of 1\u2019-acetoxychavicol acetate content in a nanostructured lipid carrier formulation","volume":"58","author":"Subramaniam","year":"2022","journal-title":"Braz. J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3097","DOI":"10.1208\/s12249-017-0798-x","article-title":"Preparation of essential oil-based microemulsions for improving the solubility, pH stability, photostability, and skin permeation of quercetin","volume":"18","author":"Lv","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aaps Pharmscitech"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.3109\/10837450.2013.829092","article-title":"Development and characterization of lutein-loaded SNEDDS for enhanced absorption in Caco-2 cells","volume":"19","author":"Niamprem","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pharm. Dev. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"45","article-title":"Candida albicans survival, growth and biofilm formation are differently affected by mouthwashes: An in vitro study","volume":"40","author":"Paulone","year":"2017","journal-title":"New Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105988","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jddst.2024.105988","article-title":"A potential thermosensitive poloxamer 407-based in situ hydrogel containing moxifloxacin-loaded silk fibroin nanoparticles for prolonged ocular delivery","volume":"99","author":"Chomchalao","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2014.08.034","article-title":"Comparison of a solid SMEDDS and solid dispersion for enhanced stability and bioavailability of clopidogrel napadisilate","volume":"114","author":"Kim","year":"2014","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.3109\/10717544.2013.878003","article-title":"Self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) of the poorly water-soluble grapefruit flavonoid Naringenin: Design, characterization, in vitro and in vivo evaluation","volume":"22","author":"Khan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpb.2011.04.012","article-title":"Solid self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (S-SNEDDS) containing phosphatidylcholine for enhanced bioavailability of highly lipophilic bioactive carotenoid lutein","volume":"79","author":"Shanmugam","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"665","article-title":"Antifungal activity of chlorhexidine containing mouthrinses. An in vitro study","volume":"47","author":"Pizzo","year":"1998","journal-title":"Minerva Stomatol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jds.2011.02.001","article-title":"In vitro antifungal effect of mouth rinses containing chlorhexidine and thymol","volume":"6","author":"Shrestha","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Dent. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/S1079-2104(96)80146-6","article-title":"Use of a microtiter plate assay to detect the rate of killing of adherent Candida albicans by antifungal agents","volume":"81","author":"Hamers","year":"1996","journal-title":"Oral Surg. Oral Med. Oral Pathol. Oral Radiol. Endodontol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1902\/jop.1991.62.7.434","article-title":"The effect of chlorhexidine treatment of root surfaces on the attachment of human gingival fibroblasts in vitro","volume":"62","author":"Alleyn","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.7150\/jbji.26355","article-title":"Cytotoxicity evaluation of chlorhexidine gluconate on human fibroblasts, myoblasts, and osteoblasts","volume":"3","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Bone Jt. Infect."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.3390\/futurepharmacol3040050","article-title":"Considerations of Nystatin Roll in Oral Candidiasis Scenario and the COVID-19 Pandemic\u2014A Review","volume":"3","author":"Martinez","year":"2023","journal-title":"Future Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.4103\/2045-080X.160990","article-title":"Regulation of stability studies to enhance the efficiency of drug registrations to regulatory authorities","volume":"6","author":"Khan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arch. Pharm. Pract."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1007\/s10068-018-0532-9","article-title":"Influence of structural properties of emulsifiers on citral degradation in model emulsions","volume":"28","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Sci. Biotechnol."}],"container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/17\/5\/546\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:19:54Z","timestamp":1760030394000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/17\/5\/546"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,23]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5]]}},"alternative-id":["pharmaceutics17050546"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pharmaceutics17050546","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4923"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4923","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,23]]}}}