{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T18:32:08Z","timestamp":1790793128261,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":202,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,29]],"date-time":"2025-05-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1748476800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Breast milk provides significant health benefits to both infants and mothers, offering protection against infections and enhancing cognitive development. This paper examines the complex effects of substance use disorder (SUD) during pregnancy and lactation, focusing on the pharmacokinetics of drug transfer into breast milk. It highlights the mechanisms by which drugs enter milk, emphasizing the roles of passive diffusion and active transport, particularly through breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP). The study explores the impact of various substances on fetal and infant health, with a focus on the relative infant dose (RID) and milk-to-plasma (MP) ratio as key metrics for assessing drug safety in breastfeeding. The findings underscore the need for careful evaluation of maternal drug use during lactation to balance the benefits of breastfeeding with potential risks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics17060719","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,29]],"date-time":"2025-05-29T09:47:34Z","timestamp":1748512054000},"page":"719","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["The Impact of Substance Use Disorder and Drug Transfer into Breast Milk: Implications for Maternal and Infant Health"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-3928-9632","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yongzong","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, 121A Weill Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-9630-4258","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bofang","family":"Yi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, SUNY-Binghamton University, 96 Corliss Ave, Johnson City, NY 13790, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9268-8230","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tao","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, SUNY-Binghamton University, 96 Corliss Ave, Johnson City, NY 13790, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqab336","article-title":"Term infant formula supplemented with milk-derived oligosaccharides shifts the gut microbiota closer to that of human milk-fed infants and improves intestinal immune defense: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"115","author":"Estorninos","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lyons, K.E., Ryan, C.A., Dempsey, E.M., Ross, R.P., and Stanton, C. (2020). Breast milk, a source of beneficial microbes and associated benefits for infant health. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12041039"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"5","article-title":"The impact of breastmilk on infant and child health","volume":"10","author":"Oddy","year":"2002","journal-title":"Breastfeed. Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Pediatrics, A.A.o. (2012). Policy Statement Breast feeding and the use of human milk. Pediatrics, 129."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.74.4.615","article-title":"Review of the epidemiologic evidence for an association between infant feeding and infant health","volume":"74","author":"Kovar","year":"1984","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2007.0024","article-title":"The immune system in human milk and the developing infant","volume":"2","author":"Goldman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Breastfeed. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1203\/01.pdr.0000250274.68571.18","article-title":"Protection of the neonate by the innate immune system of developing gut and of human milk","volume":"61","author":"Newburg","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Altobelli, E., Angeletti, P.M., Verrotti, A., and Petrocelli, R. (2020). The impact of human milk on necrotizing enterocolitis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12051322"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clp.2016.11.009","article-title":"Necrotizing enterocolitis and human milk feeding: A systematic review","volume":"44","author":"Cacho","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.65.5.578","article-title":"Breastfeeding and child cognitive development: New evidence from a large randomized trial","volume":"65","author":"Kramer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Belfort, M.B., Anderson, P.J., Nowak, V.A., Lee, K.J., Molesworth, C., Thompson, D.K., Doyle, L.W., and Inder, T.E. (2016). Breast milk feeding, brain development, and neurocognitive outcomes: A 7-year longitudinal study in infants born at less than 30 weeks\u2019 gestation. J. Pediatr., 177.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2016.06.045"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cacho, N.T., and Lawrence, R.M. (2017). Innate immunity and breast milk. Front. Immunol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.00584"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1139\/apnm-2015-0660","article-title":"Evidence for the essentiality of arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acid in the postnatal maternal and infant diet for the development of the infant\u2019s immune system early in life","volume":"41","author":"Richard","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.3945\/an.114.006643","article-title":"It\u2019s alive: Microbes and cells in human milk and their potential benefits to mother and infant","volume":"5","author":"Bode","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1530\/jrf.0.0650521","article-title":"Development of the mammary gland","volume":"65","author":"Knight","year":"1982","journal-title":"Reproduction"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.1971.51.3.564","article-title":"Mechanism of milk secretion","volume":"51","author":"Linzell","year":"1971","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rbmo.2012.01.010","article-title":"Elevated progesterone during ovarian stimulation for IVF","volume":"24","author":"Kyrou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Reprod. Biomed. Online"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-409X(03)00032-2","article-title":"Models and methods for predicting drug transfer into human milk","volume":"55","author":"Fleishaker","year":"2003","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Brodin, B., Steffansen, B., and Nielsen, C.U. (2010). Passive diffusion of drug substances: The concepts of flux and permeability. Molecular Biopharmaceutics, Pharmaceutical Press."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"364","article-title":"Behaviours of drugs in the milk\u2014A review","volume":"13","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atat\u00fcrk \u00dcniversitesi Vet. Bilim. Derg."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garc\u00eda-Lino, A.M., \u00c1lvarez-Fern\u00e1ndez, I., Blanco-Paniagua, E., Merino, G., and \u00c1lvarez, A.I. (2019). Transporters in the mammary gland\u2014Contribution to presence of nutrients and drugs into milk. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11102372"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"2527","article-title":"Prediction of drug transfer into milk considering breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP)-mediated transport","volume":"32","author":"Ito","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pharm. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1870","DOI":"10.1002\/psp4.13195","article-title":"A literature review of drug transport mechanisms during lactation","volume":"13","author":"Gong","year":"2024","journal-title":"CPT Pharmacomet. Syst. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1002\/bdd.2335","article-title":"Physiologically based pharmacokinetic model to predict drug concentrations of breast cancer resistance protein substrates in milk","volume":"43","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biopharm. Drug Dispos."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2885.2010.01241.x","article-title":"Involvement of breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP\/ABCG2) in the secretion of danofloxacin into milk: Interaction with ivermectin","volume":"34","author":"Real","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1124\/dmd.105.008219","article-title":"Breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP\/ABCG2) transports fluoroquinolone antibiotics and affects their oral availability, pharmacokinetics, and milk secretion","volume":"34","author":"Merino","year":"2006","journal-title":"Drug Metab. Dispos."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e118","DOI":"10.1097\/MJT.0000000000000909","article-title":"A new safety scoring system for the use of psychotropic drugs during lactation","volume":"28","author":"Uguz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Ther."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1007\/s00439-012-1168-0","article-title":"Epidemiology of substance use disorders","volume":"131","author":"Merikangas","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2013.12060782","article-title":"DSM-5 criteria for substance use disorders: Recommendations and rationale","volume":"170","author":"Hasin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1483","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.162.8.1483","article-title":"Co-occurring mental and substance use disorders: The neurobiological effects of chronic stress","volume":"162","author":"Brady","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1963","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-016-4212-2","article-title":"Mechanisms of the psychostimulant effects of caffeine: Implications for substance use disorders","volume":"233","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.3109\/10673229809000321","article-title":"The effect of comorbid substance use disorders on the course of bipolar disorder: A review","volume":"6","author":"Tohen","year":"1998","journal-title":"Harv. Rev. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2003.08.002","article-title":"Liability to substance use disorders: 1. Common mechanisms and manifestations","volume":"27","author":"Vanyukov","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-clinpsy-072720-014802","article-title":"Mechanisms of behavior change in substance use disorder with and without formal treatment","volume":"18","author":"Witkiewitz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.1994.tb00954.x","article-title":"Variations in therapist effectiveness in the treatment of patients with substance use disorders: An empirical review","volume":"89","author":"Najavits","year":"1994","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Forray, A. (2016). Substance use during pregnancy. F1000Research, 5.","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.7645.1"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frazer, Z., McConnell, K., and Jansson, L.M. (2019). Treatment for substance use disorders in pregnant women: Motivators and barriers. Drug Alcohol Depend., 205.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2019.107652"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clp.2007.09.001","article-title":"Maternal and fetal effects from substance use","volume":"34","author":"Rayburn","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"B5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2019.03.022","article-title":"Substance use disorders in pregnancy: Clinical, ethical, and research imperatives of the opioid epidemic: A report of a joint workshop of the Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, and American Society of Addiction Medicine","volume":"221","author":"Ecker","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199110033251401","article-title":"The transfer of alcohol to human milk: Effects on flavor and the infant\u2019s behavior","volume":"325","author":"Mennella","year":"1991","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S151","DOI":"10.1002\/jcph.1113","article-title":"Opioids in breast milk: Pharmacokinetic principles and clinical implications","volume":"58","author":"Ito","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychores.2019.03.015","article-title":"Racial\/ethnic differences in mental health treatment among a national sample of pregnant women with mental health and\/or substance use disorders in the United States","volume":"121","author":"Salameh","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Psychosom. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1482","DOI":"10.1111\/anae.15179","article-title":"Guideline on anaesthesia and sedation in breastfeeding women 2020: Guideline from the Association of Anaesthetists","volume":"75","author":"Mitchell","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anaesthesia"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1081\/JLC-100101475","article-title":"Characteristics of interaction between barbiturate derivatives and various sorbents on liquid chromatography and determination of phenobarbital in Japanese human breast milk","volume":"23","author":"Shimoyama","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Liq. Chromatogr. Relat. Technol."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Dhaliwal, J.S., Rosani, A., and Saadabadi, A. (2023). Diazepam. StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tani, N., Ikeda, T., and Ishikawa, T. (2023). Relationship between clock gene expression and CYP2C19 and CYP3A4 with benzodiazepines. Hum. Exp. Toxicol., 42.","DOI":"10.1177\/09603271231171643"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.2174\/138920008786049258","article-title":"Benzodiazepine metabolism: An analytical perspective","volume":"9","author":"Mandrioli","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Drug Metabolism"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1235","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(72)90954-3","article-title":"Diazepam and breast-feeding","volume":"1","author":"Erkkola","year":"1972","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"73","article-title":"Identification and quantification of drugs and drug metabolites in human breast milk using GC-MS-COM methods","volume":"15","author":"Horning","year":"1975","journal-title":"Mod. Probl. Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"454","article-title":"Passage of diazepam and desmethyldiazepam into breast milk","volume":"26","author":"Brandt","year":"1976","journal-title":"Arzneim.-Forsch."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1080\/02791072.1985.10472320","article-title":"Diazepam and desmethyldiazepam in breast milk","volume":"17","author":"Wesson","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Psychoact. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2125.1990.tb03612.x","article-title":"Excretion of diazepam and its metabolites in human milk during withdrawal from combination high dose diazepam and oxazepam","volume":"29","author":"Dusci","year":"1990","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1552-4604.1997.tb04780.x","article-title":"Clinical significance of methohexital, meperidine, and diazepam in breast milk","volume":"37","author":"Borgatta","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(72)90216-4","article-title":"Diazepam and breast-feeding","volume":"1","author":"Patrick","year":"1972","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2012.03.003","article-title":"Neonatal benzodiazepines exposure during breastfeeding","volume":"161","author":"Kelly","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duman, N.C., Gulcebi, M.I., Ayhan, G.B., Ozkula, S., As\u0131k, Z.T., Gulhan, R., Onat, F., Goren, M.Z., and Karaalp, A. (2016). Assessment of colchicine use during pregnancy and breastfeeding in a University Hospital. Reprod. Toxicol., 60.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.reprotox.2016.03.022"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gilder, M.E., Tun, N.W., Carter, A., Tan, F.F.S.L., Min, A.M., Eh, H., Aye, P., Carrara, V.I., Angkurawaranon, C., and McGready, R. (2021). Outcomes for 298 breastfed neonates whose mothers received ketamine and diazepam for postpartum tubal ligation in a resource-limited setting. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-021-03610-1"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michelucci, R., and Pasini, E. (2015). Phenobarbital, primidone and other barbiturates. The Treatment of Epilepsy, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118936979.ch42"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gotoh, S., Ohno, M., Yoshinari, K., Negishi, M., and Kawajiri, K. (2015). Nuclear receptor-mediated regulation of cytochrome P450 genes. Cytochrome P450: Structure, Mechanism, and Biochemistry, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-12108-6_10"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.2165\/00002018-200629020-00001","article-title":"Interactions between antiepileptic and antipsychotic drugs","volume":"29","author":"Besag","year":"2006","journal-title":"Drug Safety"},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"577","article-title":"Separation and microdetermination of phenobarbital and phenytoin in human milk","volume":"100","author":"Westerink","year":"1965","journal-title":"Pharm. Weekbl."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Janz, D., Bossi, L., and Dam, M. (1982). Prolonged feeding difficulties of infants of primidone mothers during neonatal period. Preliminary results from the helsinki study. Epilepsy, Pregnancy and the Child, Raven Press."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"968","DOI":"10.1097\/00045391-199512000-00011","article-title":"Phenobarbital in sera of epileptic mothers and their infants","volume":"2","author":"Gomita","year":"1995","journal-title":"Am. J. Ther."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(38)80132-3","article-title":"Drugs transmitted through breast milk: II. Barbiturates","volume":"13","author":"Tyson","year":"1938","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-0528.1954.tb07739.x","article-title":"Methaemoglobinaemia in the newborn probably due to phenytoin excreted in human milk","volume":"61","author":"Finch","year":"1954","journal-title":"J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Br. Emp."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"2257","article-title":"Barbiturate poisoning via breast milk?","volume":"131","author":"Juul","year":"1969","journal-title":"Ugeskr. Laeger"},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Gopfert-Geyer, I., Koch, S., Rating, D., Jager-Roman, E., Hartmann, A., Jacob, S., Offermann, G., and Hedge, H. (1982). Delivery, gestation, data at birth, and neonatal period in children of epileptic mothers. Epilepsy, Pregnancy and the Child, Raven Press."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davanzo, R., Dal Bo, S., Bua, J., Copertino, M., Zanelli, E., and Matarazzo, L. (2013). Antiepileptic drugs and breastfeeding. Ital. J. Pediatr., 39.","DOI":"10.1186\/1824-7288-39-50"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(87)90853-1","article-title":"Infantile spasms on weaning from breast milk containing anticonvulsants","volume":"2","author":"Knott","year":"1987","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Tolledo, C. (2020). CYP2D Is Functional in the Brain and Alters Haloperidol-Induced Side Effects. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Toronto]."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Chavan, A. (2007). Haloperidol In Vitro Glucuronidation and Oxidation in Human Liver Microsomes, Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291797005965","article-title":"Neuroleptic drugs in breast-milk: A study of pharmacokinetics and of possible adverse effects in breast-fed infants","volume":"28","author":"Yoshida","year":"1998","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"849","article-title":"Haloperidol excretion in human milk","volume":"137","author":"Stewart","year":"1981","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1746","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.282.6278.1746","article-title":"Haloperidol secreted in breast milk","volume":"282","author":"Whalley","year":"1981","journal-title":"Br. Med. J. Clin. Res. Ed."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2019.0093","article-title":"Adverse events in a breastfed infant exposed to risperidone and haloperidol","volume":"14","author":"Uguz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Breastfeed. Med."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Ziman, M.R. (1983). A Comparison of the Effects of Xenobiotics on Hepatic Haem Metabolism. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cape Town]."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"953","DOI":"10.1212\/CON.0000000000000192","article-title":"Acute migraine treatment","volume":"21","author":"Becker","year":"2015","journal-title":"Contin. Lifelong Learn. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lacey, J. (1971). Dichloralphenazone and breast milk. Br. Med. J., 4.","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.4.5788.684-b"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1038\/clpt.1982.6","article-title":"Antipyrine disposition in milk and saliva of lactating women","volume":"31","author":"Berlin","year":"1982","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dinis-Oliveira, R.J. (2018). Metabolic profiles of propofol and fospropofol: Clinical and forensic interpretative aspects. BioMed Res. Int., 2018.","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/6852857"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schmitt, J., Schwoerer, D., Diemunsch, P., and Gauthier-Lafaye, J. (1987). Passage du propofol dans le colostrum. Donn\u00e9es pr\u00e9liminaires. Annales Fran\u00e7aises d\u2019Anesth\u00e9sie et de R\u00e9animation, Elsevier BV.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0750-7658(87)80036-9"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1097\/00000542-198912000-00003","article-title":"Intravenous propofol during cesarean section: Placental transfer, concentrations in breast milk, and neonatal effects. A preliminary study","volume":"71","author":"Dailland","year":"1989","journal-title":"Anesthesiology"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clpt.2006.02.010","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics of midazolam, propofol, and fentanyl transfer to human breast milk","volume":"79","author":"Nitsun","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"Angeli, M. (2018). Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome: Comparing the Hepatic Metabolism of Addictive Medicines In Vitro in the Fetus, Neonate and Adult Female. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Tufts University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences]."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2125.1995.tb05778.x","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics in lactating women: Prediction of alprazolam transfer into milk","volume":"40","author":"Oo","year":"1995","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpba.2019.02.011","article-title":"Quantification of eight benzodiazepines in human breastmilk and plasma by liquid-liquid extraction and liquid-chromatography tandem mass spectrometry: Application to evaluation of alprazolam transfer into breastmilk","volume":"168","author":"Furugen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anderson, P.O., and Mcguire, G.G. (1989). Neonatal alprazolam withdrawal\u2014Possible effects of breast feeding. DICP, 23.","DOI":"10.1177\/1060028089023007-822"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1393","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9378(11)90771-6","article-title":"Prospective follow-up of adverse reactions in breast-fed infants exposed to maternal medication","volume":"168","author":"Ito","year":"1993","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_89","first-page":"123","article-title":"High doses alprazolam induced amenorrhoea and galactorrhoea","volume":"23","author":"Peitl","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Danub."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stuttmann, R., Sch\u00e4fer, C., Hilbert, P., Meyer, M.R., and Maurer, H.H. (2010). The breast feeding mother and xenon anaesthesia: Four case reports. Breast feeding and xenon anaesthesia. BMC Anesthesiol., 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2253-10-1"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kutlucan, L., Seker, \u0130.S., Demiraran, Y., Ersoy, \u00d6., Karag\u00f6z, \u0130., Sezen, G., and K\u00f6se, S.A. (2014). Effects of different anesthesia protocols on lactation in the postpartum period. J. Turk. Ger. Gynecol. Assoc., 15.","DOI":"10.5152\/jtgga.2014.14111"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1168","DOI":"10.1097\/ALN.0b013e3181bbc4b1","article-title":"Green breast milk after propofol administration","volume":"111","author":"Birkholz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anesthesiology"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rainone, A., Delucilla, L., Elofer, S., Bensimon, L., and Abittan, G. (2018). Propofol-induced green breast milk: A case report. Can. J. Hosp. Pharm., 71.","DOI":"10.4212\/cjhp.v71i6.2856"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1111\/jpc.15139","article-title":"Green breast milk: A rare side effect of propofol","volume":"57","author":"Bulut","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Paediatr. Child. Health"},{"key":"ref_95","first-page":"1","article-title":"Carisoprodol: Update on abuse potential and mechanism of action","volume":"7","author":"Kumar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Cell Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1097\/00007691-200106000-00020","article-title":"Transfer of carisoprodol to breast milk","volume":"23","author":"Nordeng","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ther. Drug Monit."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1309\/4KTM-CY6N-572P-7ERD","article-title":"Carisoprodol: An unrecognized drug of abuse","volume":"117","author":"Bailey","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"898","DOI":"10.1345\/aph.1L042","article-title":"High-dose carisoprodol during pregnancy and lactation","volume":"42","author":"Briggs","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ann. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1080\/03602532.2017.1293682","article-title":"Glucuronidation: Driving factors and their impact on glucuronide disposition","volume":"49","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Drug Metab. Rev."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1042","DOI":"10.1093\/bja\/57.10.1042-a","article-title":"Excretion of lorazepam into breast milk","volume":"57","author":"Sommerfield","year":"1985","journal-title":"BJA Br. J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.282.6270.1106","article-title":"Effect of maternal lorazepam on the neonate","volume":"282","author":"Whitelaw","year":"1981","journal-title":"Br. Med. J. Clin. Res. Ed."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1093\/jat\/31.4.224","article-title":"Quantification of lorazepam and lormetazepam in human breast milk using GC-MS in the negative chemical ionization mode","volume":"31","author":"Lemmer","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Anal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2020.0259","article-title":"Benzodiazepine concentrations in the breast milk and plasma of nursing mothers: Estimation of relative infant dose","volume":"16","author":"Nishimura","year":"2021","journal-title":"Breastfeed. Med."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.4103\/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_45_20","article-title":"Adverse effects and short-term developmental outcomes of infants exposed to atypical antipsychotics during breastfeeding","volume":"63","author":"Sinha","year":"2021","journal-title":"Indian J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_105","first-page":"45","article-title":"Nurturing and breast-feeding: Exposure to chemicals in breast milk","volume":"101","author":"Somogyi","year":"1993","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2016.08.002","article-title":"Tobacco smoking and breastfeeding: Effect on the lactation process, breast milk composition and infant development. A critical review","volume":"151","author":"Napierala","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cone, E.J., Fant, R.V., and Henningfield, J.E. (2011). Nicotine and tobacco. Handbook of Drug Interactions: A Clinical and Forensic Guide, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-61779-222-9_14"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, A.Z., and Tyndale, R.F. (2012). Nicotine metabolism and its implications. Metabolism of Drugs and Other Xenobiotics, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/9783527630905.ch17"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2018.29092.wjb","article-title":"ABM Clinical Protocol #9: Use of Galactogogues in Initiating or Augmenting Maternal Milk Production, Second Revision 2018","volume":"13","author":"Brodribb","year":"2018","journal-title":"Breastfeed. Med."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2021). Breastfeeding Challenges: ACOG Committee Opinion, Number 820. Obstet. Gynecol., 137, e42\u2013e53.","DOI":"10.1097\/AOG.0000000000004253"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Organizers (1989). Abstracts of the IV World Conference on Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol., 36, A1\u2013A341.","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02411402"},{"key":"ref_112","first-page":"57","article-title":"Treatment of inadequate lactation with oral sulpiride and buccal oxytocin","volume":"63","author":"Ylikorkala","year":"1984","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.285.6337.249","article-title":"Sulpiride improves inadequate lactation","volume":"285","author":"Ylikorkala","year":"1982","journal-title":"Br. Med. J. Clin. Res. Ed."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem-48-3-478","article-title":"Augmentation of puerperal lactation by oral administration of sulpiride","volume":"48","author":"Aono","year":"1979","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saito, J., Tachibana, Y., Wada, Y.S., Yakuwa, N., Kawasaki, H., Suzuki, T., Sago, H., Yamatani, A., and Murashima, A. (2022). Transfer of brotizolam, periciazine, and sulpiride in cord blood and breast milk, and alprazolam in breast milk: A case report. J. Pharm. Health Care Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40780-022-00241-2"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"876","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem-66-4-876","article-title":"Failure of maintained hyperprolactinemia to improve lactational performance in late puerperium","volume":"66","author":"Cruz","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_117","first-page":"144","article-title":"Sulpiride isomers and milk secretion in puerperium","volume":"9","author":"Polatti","year":"1982","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2125.1987.tb03153.x","article-title":"Prolactin response to low dose sulpiride","volume":"24","author":"McMurdo","year":"1987","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1507\/endocrj1954.39.465","article-title":"Simultaneous administration of TRH and sulpiride caused additive but not synergistic PRL responses in normal subjects","volume":"39","author":"Hanew","year":"1992","journal-title":"Endocrinol. Jpn."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S84","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2004-815515","article-title":"Galactorrhea due to psychotropic drugs","volume":"37","author":"Kropp","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pharmacopsychiatry"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1978","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2008.09.016","article-title":"Time course of the changes in antipsychotic-induced hyperprolactinemia following the switch to aripiprazole","volume":"32","author":"Lu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_122","first-page":"123","article-title":"Can pharmacologic hyperprolactinemia and breast-suction induce lactation in women with normal menstrual cycles?","volume":"11","author":"Polatti","year":"1984","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9378(82)90476-8","article-title":"Effect of sulpiride on poor puerperal lactation","volume":"143","author":"Aono","year":"1982","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2014.0133","article-title":"Treatment of maternal hypergalactia","volume":"9","author":"Eglash","year":"2014","journal-title":"Breastfeed. Med."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2011.0092","article-title":"Management of deficient lactation in Switzerland and Canada: A survey of midwives\u2019 current practices","volume":"7","author":"Winterfeld","year":"2012","journal-title":"Breastfeed. Med."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1089\/act.1997.3.93","article-title":"Botanical Medicine in Pregnancy and Lactation","volume":"3","author":"Yarnell","year":"1997","journal-title":"Altern. Complement. Ther."},{"key":"ref_127","first-page":"234","article-title":"Herbs of special interest to women","volume":"40","author":"Hardy","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Am. Pharm. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1442-200X.1989.tb01323.x","article-title":"Breast-feeding practices in rural Karnataka (India) with special reference to lactation failure","volume":"31","author":"Benakappa","year":"1989","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr. Jpn."},{"key":"ref_129","first-page":"1037","article-title":"Laxative induced hypoalbuminemia","volume":"32","author":"Jayaprakash","year":"1995","journal-title":"Indian Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1159\/000457060","article-title":"Effect of maternal caffeine consumption on heart rate and sleep time of breast-fed infants","volume":"8","author":"Ryu","year":"1985","journal-title":"Dev. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1023\/B:PHAM.0000022401.14710.c5","article-title":"Neonatal exposure to drugs in breast milk","volume":"21","author":"McNamara","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pharm. Res."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1016207832591","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics of caffeine and its demethylated metabolites in lactation: Predictions of milk to serum concentration ratios","volume":"12","author":"Oo","year":"1995","journal-title":"Pharm. Res."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/48.3.645","article-title":"Coffee consumption as a factor in iron deficiency anemia among pregnant women and their infants in Costa Rica","volume":"48","author":"Keen","year":"1988","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00637512","article-title":"Effect of pregnancy on the pharmacokinetics of caffeine","volume":"21","author":"Knutti","year":"1981","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.73.1.59","article-title":"Disposition of dietary caffeine in milk, saliva, and plasma of lactating women","volume":"73","author":"Berlin","year":"1984","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1038\/clpt.1981.87","article-title":"Analgesic drugs in breast milk and plasma","volume":"29","author":"Findlay","year":"1981","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1002\/bod.2510090307","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics of caffeine in breast milk and plasma after single oral administration of caffeine to lactating mothers","volume":"9","author":"Stavchansky","year":"1988","journal-title":"Biopharm. Drug Dispos."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.54.10.787","article-title":"Caffeine secretion into breast milk","volume":"54","author":"Tyrala","year":"1979","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1159\/000457057","article-title":"Caffeine in human milk and in serum of breast-fed infants","volume":"8","author":"Ryu","year":"1985","journal-title":"Dev. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1093\/jat\/bkw034","article-title":"Transfer of Nicotine, Cotinine and Caffeine into Breast Milk in a Smoker Mother Consuming Caffeinated Drinks","volume":"40","author":"Calvaresi","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Anal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_141","first-page":"59","article-title":"Drugs in breast milk","volume":"7","year":"1977","journal-title":"Drug Ther."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1093\/jat\/6.2.64","article-title":"A study of salicylate and caffeine excretion in the breast milk of two nursing mothers","volume":"6","author":"Bailey","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Anal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.2217\/pgs.10.171","article-title":"Absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion pharmacogenomics of drugs of abuse","volume":"12","author":"Meyer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pharmacogenomics"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.1016\/S0090-9556(25)08806-3","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics of oral methamphetamine and effects of repeated daily dosing in humans","volume":"20","author":"Cook","year":"1992","journal-title":"Drug Metab. Dispos."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2125.2009.03366.x","article-title":"Transfer of methylamphetamine and amphetamine into breast milk following recreational use of methylamphetamine","volume":"67","author":"Bartu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1177\/0890334415610080","article-title":"Transfer of methamphetamine (MA) into breast milk and urine of postpartum women who smoked MA tablets during pregnancy: Implications for initiation of breastfeeding","volume":"32","author":"Chomchai","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Hum. Lact."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pisk\u00e1\u010dkov\u00e1, H.B., Neme\u0161kalov\u00e1, A., Ku\u010dera, R., Pedersen-Bjergaard, S., Najmanov\u00e1, V., \u0160t\u011brbov\u00e1-Kova\u0159\u00edkov\u00e1, P., Kucha\u0159, M., and S\u00fdkora, D. (2022). Advanced microextraction techniques for the analysis of amphetamines in human breast milk and their comparison with conventional methods. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal., 210.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpba.2021.114549"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ariagno, R., Karch, S.B., Middleberg, R., Stephens, B.G., and Vald\u00e8s-Dapena, M. (1995). Methamphetamine ingestion by a breast-feeding mother and her infant\u2019s death: People v Henderson. JAMA, 274.","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1995.03530030035020"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1376","DOI":"10.1111\/1556-4029.14321","article-title":"Increasing methamphetamine detection in cases of early childhood fatalities","volume":"65","author":"Kenneally","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Forensic Sci."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1007\/s002130050860","article-title":"Psychopathological, neuroendocrine and autonomic effects of 3, 4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDE), psilocybin and d-methamphetamine in healthy volunteers Results of an experimental double-blind placebo-controlled study: Results of an experimental double-blind placebo-controlled study","volume":"142","author":"Thelen","year":"1999","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2007-1018749","article-title":"Prolactin lowering effect of amphetamine in normoprolactinemic subjects and in physiological and pathological hyperprolactinemia","volume":"15","author":"DeLeo","year":"1983","journal-title":"Horm. Metab. Res."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1159\/000298843","article-title":"Prolactin changes after administration of agonist and antagonist dopaminergic drugs in puerperal women","volume":"23","author":"Petraglia","year":"1987","journal-title":"Gynecol. Obstet. Investig."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0032-1304818","article-title":"Prenatal methamphetamine exposure and short-term maternal and infant medical outcomes","volume":"29","author":"Shah","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_154","first-page":"1218","article-title":"Maternal cocaine use during breastfeeding","volume":"58","author":"Cressman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Can. Fam. Physician"},{"key":"ref_155","first-page":"836","article-title":"Cocaine intoxication in a breast-fed infant","volume":"80","author":"Chasnoff","year":"1987","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpba.2014.10.026","article-title":"Determination of cocaine\/crack biomarkers in colostrum by LC-MS following protein precipitation","volume":"103","author":"Pereira","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1221","DOI":"10.1520\/JFS15124J","article-title":"Detection of cocaine and its metabolites in breast milk","volume":"46","author":"Winecker","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Forensic Sci."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2016.01.007","article-title":"Development of a method for the determination of cocaine, cocaethylene and norcocaine in human breast milk using liquid phase microextraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry","volume":"265","author":"Belitsky","year":"2016","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(88)80139-2","article-title":"Cocaine convulsions in a breast-feeding baby","volume":"112","author":"Chaney","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1655","DOI":"10.4155\/bio-2017-0140","article-title":"Efficient extraction method using magnetic carbon nanotubes to analyze cocaine and benzoylecgonine in breast milk by GC\/MS","volume":"9","author":"Veloso","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bioanalysis"},{"key":"ref_161","first-page":"1097","article-title":"Ethanol pharmacokinetics in lactating women","volume":"26","author":"Malheiros","year":"1993","journal-title":"Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-0528.1974.tb00369.x","article-title":"Ethanol and acetaldehyde in the milk and peripheral blood of lactating women after ethanol administration","volume":"81","year":"1974","journal-title":"J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Br. Commonw."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9378(69)90094-5","article-title":"Milk-ejecting and antidiuretic activities under neurohypophyseal inhibition with alcohol and water overload","volume":"105","author":"Cobo","year":"1969","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9378(73)90526-7","article-title":"Effect of different doses of ethanol on the milk-ejecting reflex in lactating women","volume":"115","author":"Cobo","year":"1973","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_165","first-page":"213","article-title":"Inhibition by ethanol of the oxytocin response to breast stimulation in normal women and the role of endogenous opioids","volume":"126","author":"Coiro","year":"1992","journal-title":"Acta Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1389","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03924.x","article-title":"Short-term effects of maternal alcohol consumption on lactational performance","volume":"22","author":"Mennella","year":"1998","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1207\/S15327078IN0303_4","article-title":"The Effects of Alcohol in Breast Milk on Infant Behavioral State and Mother-Infant Feeding Interactions","volume":"3","author":"Schuetze","year":"2002","journal-title":"Infancy"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198908173210703","article-title":"Maternal alcohol use during breast-feeding and infant mental and motor development at one year","volume":"321","author":"Little","year":"1989","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Little, R.E., Northstone, K., and Golding, J. (2002). Alcohol, breastfeeding, and development at 18 months. Pediatrics, 109.","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.109.5.e72"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1111\/dar.12473","article-title":"Alcohol consumption by breastfeeding mothers: Frequency, correlates and infant outcomes","volume":"36","author":"Wilson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1016\/0741-8329(91)90618-7","article-title":"Prolactin and cortisol levels following acute alcohol challenges in women with and without a family history of alcoholism","volume":"8","author":"Lex","year":"1991","journal-title":"Alcohol"},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1159\/000047146","article-title":"Alcohol and breast feeding: Calculation of time to zero level in milk","volume":"80","author":"Ho","year":"2001","journal-title":"Biol. Neonate"},{"key":"ref_173","first-page":"382","article-title":"Maternal lactation characteristics after consumption of an alcoholic soup during the postpartum \u2018doing-the-month\u2019 ritual","volume":"12","author":"Chien","year":"2009","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_174","first-page":"31","article-title":"Plasma clearance of ethanol and its excretion in the milk of rural women who consume pulque","volume":"44","year":"1992","journal-title":"Rev. Investig. Clin."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/S0741-8329(01)00175-6","article-title":"Sleep disturbances after acute exposure to alcohol in mothers\u2019 milk","volume":"25","author":"Mennella","year":"2001","journal-title":"Alcohol"},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(78)81220-7","article-title":"Pseudo-Cushing syndrome caused by alcohol in breast milk","volume":"93","author":"Binkiewicz","year":"1978","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JAMA (1937). Current Medical Literature. J. Am. Med. Assoc., 109, 163\u2013178.","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1937.02780280069054"},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hon, K.L., Leung, A.K., Cheung, E., Lee, B., Tsang, M.M., and Torres, A.R. (2018). An overview of exposure to ethanol-containing substances and ethanol intoxication in children based on three illustrated cases. Drugs Context, 7.","DOI":"10.7573\/dic.212512"},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1159\/000177706","article-title":"Effects of ethanol consumption during pregnancy and lactation on the outcome and postnatal growth of the offspring","volume":"36","author":"Argote","year":"1992","journal-title":"Ann. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1626","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ejcn.1602019","article-title":"Pulque intake during pregnancy and lactation in rural Mexico: Alcohol and child growth from 1 to 57 months","volume":"58","author":"Backstrand","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tadesse, A.W., Ayano, G., Dachew, B.A., Betts, K., and Alati, R. (2024). Exposure to maternal cannabis use disorder and risk of autism spectrum disorder in offspring: A data linkage cohort study. Psychiatry Res., 337.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2024.115971"},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castro-Navarro, I., McGuire, M.A., Williams, J.E., Holdsworth, E.A., Meehan, C.L., and McGuire, M.K. (2024). Maternal Cannabis Use during Lactation and Potential Effects on Human Milk Composition and Production: A Narrative Review. Adv. Nutr., 15.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advnut.2024.100196"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03033314","article-title":"Cannabinoids and gene expression during brain development","volume":"6","author":"Ramos","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neurotox. Res."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1177\/0890334421993466","article-title":"Postpartum Marijuana Use, Perceptions of Safety, and Breastfeeding Initiation and Duration: An Analysis of PRAMS Data from Seven States, 2017","volume":"37","author":"Coy","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Hum. Lact."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/0892-0362(90)90129-Z","article-title":"Maternal marijuana use during lactation and infant development at one year","volume":"12","author":"Astley","year":"1990","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol. Teratol."},{"key":"ref_186","first-page":"48","article-title":"Marijuana: Prenatal and postnatal exposure in the human","volume":"59","author":"Tennes","year":"1985","journal-title":"NIDA Res. Monogr."},{"key":"ref_187","first-page":"33","article-title":"The Effect of Cannabis Consumption During Lactation on the Macronutrient Concentrations in Breast Milk","volume":"20","author":"Narayanan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Breastfeed. Med."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1198","DOI":"10.1097\/AOG.0000000000002878","article-title":"Marijuana Use in Pregnancy and While Breastfeeding","volume":"132","author":"Metz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1959","DOI":"10.1038\/s41390-022-02315-1","article-title":"Cannabis use during lactation may alter the composition of human breast milk","volume":"93","author":"Josan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2023.29256.abm","article-title":"Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine Clinical Protocol #21: Breastfeeding in the Setting of Substance Use and Substance Use Disorder (Revised 2023)","volume":"18","author":"Harris","year":"2023","journal-title":"Breastfeed. Med."},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198209233071311","article-title":"Presence of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol in human milk","volume":"307","author":"Wall","year":"1982","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1097\/AOG.0000000000002575","article-title":"Transfer of Inhaled Cannabis into Human Breast Milk","volume":"131","author":"Baker","year":"2018","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bertrand, K.A., Hanan, N.J., Honerkamp-Smith, G., Best, B.M., and Chambers, C.D. (2018). Marijuana Use by Breastfeeding Mothers and Cannabinoid Concentrations in Breast Milk. Pediatrics, 142.","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2018-1076"},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1038\/s41390-020-01332-2","article-title":"Cannabis use and measurement of cannabinoids in plasma and breast milk of breastfeeding mothers","volume":"90","author":"Moss","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2024.0021","article-title":"Human Milk Cannabinoid Concentrations and Associations with Maternal Factors: The Lactation and Cannabis (LAC) Study","volume":"19","author":"Holdsworth","year":"2024","journal-title":"Breastfeed. Med."},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2022). North American Congress of Clinical Toxicology (NACCT) 2022. Clin. Toxicol., 60, 1\u2013162.","DOI":"10.1080\/15563650.2022.2107776"},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wiley (2023). Poster Abstracts. Fundam. Clin. Pharmacol., 37, 92\u2013209.","DOI":"10.1111\/fcp.12908"},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shenkoya, B., Yellepeddi, V., Mark, K., and Gopalakrishnan, M. (2023). Predicting Maternal and Infant Tetrahydrocannabinol Exposure in Lactating Cannabis Users: A Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Modeling Approach. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics15102467"},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1007\/s11419-016-0346-5","article-title":"Headspace solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography\u2212mass spectrometry for determination of cannabinoids in human breast milk","volume":"35","author":"Silveira","year":"2017","journal-title":"Forensic Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1611","DOI":"10.1007\/s40262-023-01307-6","article-title":"Cannabidiol Exposure Through Maternal Marijuana Use: Predictions in Breastfed Infants","volume":"62","author":"Yeung","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacokinet."},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1299","DOI":"10.1345\/aph.1C379","article-title":"Prediction of milk\/plasma concentration ratio of drugs","volume":"37","author":"Larsen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ann. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anderson, P.O. (2018). Drugs in lactation. Pharm. Res., 35.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11095-017-2287-z"}],"container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/17\/6\/719\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:43:19Z","timestamp":1760031799000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/17\/6\/719"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,29]]},"references-count":202,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]}},"alternative-id":["pharmaceutics17060719"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pharmaceutics17060719","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4923"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4923","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,29]]}}}