{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]],"date-time":"2026-01-13T04:18:29Z","timestamp":1768277909895,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":95,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,26]],"date-time":"2025-06-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1750896000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Institutes of Health","award":["R01 AI172959"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 AI172959"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the virus responsible for COVID-19, remains a major global health threat. The virus enters host cells by binding to the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor. Several small-molecule antiviral drugs, including molnupiravir, favipiravir, remdesivir, and nirmatrelvir have been shown to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 replication and are approved for treating SARS-CoV-2 infections. Nirmatrelvir inhibits the viral main protease (Mpro), a key enzyme for processing polyproteins in viral replication. In contrast, molnupiravir, favipiravir, and remdesivir are prodrugs that target RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), which is crucial for genome replication and subgenomic RNA production. However, undergoing extensive metabolism profoundly impacts their therapeutic effects. Carboxylesterases (CES) are a family of enzymes that play an essential role in the metabolism of many drugs, especially prodrugs that require activation through hydrolysis. Molnupiravir is activated by carboxylesterase-2 (CES2), while remdesivir is hydrolytically activated by CES1 but inhibits CES2. Nirmatrelvir and remdesivir are oxidized by the same cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme. Additionally, various transporters are involved in the uptake or efflux of these drugs and\/or their metabolites. It is well established that drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters are differentially expressed depending on the cell type, and these genes exhibit significant polymorphisms. In this review, we examine how CES-related cellular and genetic factors influence the therapeutic activities of these widely used COVID-19 medications. This article highlights implications for improving product design, targeted inhibition, and personalized medicine by exploring genetic variations and their impact on drug metabolism and efficacy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics17070832","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,2]],"date-time":"2025-07-02T06:46:12Z","timestamp":1751438772000},"page":"832","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Carboxylesterase Factors Influencing the Therapeutic Activity of Common Antiviral Medications Used for SARS-CoV-2 Infection"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Yue","family":"Shen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, James L. Winkle College of Pharmacy, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2171-6687","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"William","family":"Eades","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, James L. Winkle College of Pharmacy, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7706-9637","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Linh","family":"Dinh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, James L. Winkle College of Pharmacy, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0798-5792","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bingfang","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, James L. Winkle College of Pharmacy, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1152\/physiolgenomics.00089.2020","article-title":"The COVID-19 pandemic: A global health crisis","volume":"52","author":"Pollard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Physiol. 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