{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:41:58Z","timestamp":1760035318199,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,4]],"date-time":"2025-07-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1751587200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003074","name":"Agencia Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnolog\u00eda e Innovaci\u00f3n","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PICT 2019-01109","IeF 2022-005","SCyT 05\/22","GRF-TI 507"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PICT 2019-01109","IeF 2022-005","SCyT 05\/22","GRF-TI 507"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003074","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Universidad Nacional de Luj\u00e1n","award":["PICT 2019-01109","IeF 2022-005","SCyT 05\/22","GRF-TI 507"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PICT 2019-01109","IeF 2022-005","SCyT 05\/22","GRF-TI 507"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003074","name":"PRESTAMO BID PICT 2021","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PICT 2019-01109","IeF 2022-005","SCyT 05\/22","GRF-TI 507"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PICT 2019-01109","IeF 2022-005","SCyT 05\/22","GRF-TI 507"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003074","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Ophidism is a globally neglected health problem. In Argentina, Crotalus durissus terrificus (C.d.t., South American rattlesnake) is one of the species of greatest medical importance since its venom contains mainly crotoxin (CTX), a potent enzyme\u2013toxin with PLA2 activity, which is responsible for its high lethality. Objective: In this work, we aimed to generate nanovenoms (NVs), complexes formed by CTX adsorbed onto 150 nm silica nanoparticles (SiNPs), and to study their physicochemical, biological, and immunomodulatory activities for potential use as adjuvants (ADJs) in antivenom (AV) production. Methods: CTX was isolated and corroborated by SDS-PAGE. Then, CTX was adsorbed on the synthetized St\u00f6ber SiNPs\u2019 surfaces, forming a monolayer and retaining its biological activity (as observed by the MTT cell proliferation assay using the THP-1 cell line). Results: Immunomodulatory activity revealed a high pro-inflammatory (IL-1\u03b2) response induced by SiNPs followed by NVs. In the case of the anti-inflammatory response, NVs presented significant differences for TGF-\u03b2 only after cell activation with LPS. No significant differences were observed in IL-10 levels. Conclusions: Thus, these results suggest that NVs together with SiNPs could increase immunogenicity and enhance immune response, turning them into potential tools for the generation of new antivenoms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics17070879","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,7]],"date-time":"2025-07-07T11:19:27Z","timestamp":1751887167000},"page":"879","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Crotoxin-Loaded Silica Nanoparticles: A Nanovenom Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-4713-6179","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Florencia Silvina","family":"Conti","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo de Investigaciones B\u00e1sicas y Aplicadas en Inmunolog\u00eda y Bioactivos (GIBAIB, INEDES-CONICET), Departamento de Ciencias B\u00e1sicas, Universidad Nacional de Luj\u00e1n (UNLu), Luj\u00e1n C6700, Argentina"},{"name":"FOCIS Center of Excellence\u2014Vaccines and Immuno Therapies Against Infections and Cancers (VITIC), Menomonee Falls, WI 53051, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Exequiel","family":"Giorgi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo de Investigaciones B\u00e1sicas y Aplicadas en Inmunolog\u00eda y Bioactivos (GIBAIB, INEDES-CONICET), Departamento de Ciencias B\u00e1sicas, Universidad Nacional de Luj\u00e1n (UNLu), Luj\u00e1n C6700, Argentina"},{"name":"FOCIS Center of Excellence\u2014Vaccines and Immuno Therapies Against Infections and Cancers (VITIC), Menomonee Falls, WI 53051, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0949-9325","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laura","family":"Montaldo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo de Investigaciones B\u00e1sicas y Aplicadas en Inmunolog\u00eda y Bioactivos (GIBAIB, INEDES-CONICET), Departamento de Ciencias B\u00e1sicas, Universidad Nacional de Luj\u00e1n (UNLu), Luj\u00e1n C6700, Argentina"},{"name":"FOCIS Center of Excellence\u2014Vaccines and Immuno Therapies Against Infections and Cancers (VITIC), Menomonee Falls, WI 53051, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8713-7178","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan Pablo","family":"Rodr\u00edguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratorio de Investigaciones Bioqu\u00edmicas, Facultad de Medicina (LIBIM), Instituto de Qu\u00edmica B\u00e1sica y Aplicada del Nordeste Argentino (IQUIBA-NEA), Universidad Nacional del Nordeste, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cient\u00edficas y T\u00e9cnicas (UNNE-CONICET), Corrientes W3400, Argentina"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3271-9768","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mauricio Cesar","family":"De Marzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo de Investigaciones B\u00e1sicas y Aplicadas en Inmunolog\u00eda y Bioactivos (GIBAIB, INEDES-CONICET), Departamento de Ciencias B\u00e1sicas, Universidad Nacional de Luj\u00e1n (UNLu), Luj\u00e1n C6700, Argentina"},{"name":"FOCIS Center of Excellence\u2014Vaccines and Immuno Therapies Against Infections and Cancers (VITIC), Menomonee Falls, WI 53051, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1349-3820","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Federico Gast\u00f3n","family":"Baudou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo de Investigaciones B\u00e1sicas y Aplicadas en Inmunolog\u00eda y Bioactivos (GIBAIB, INEDES-CONICET), Departamento de Ciencias B\u00e1sicas, Universidad Nacional de Luj\u00e1n (UNLu), Luj\u00e1n C6700, Argentina"},{"name":"Laboratorio de Glicomedicina, Instituto de Biolog\u00eda y Medicina Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cient\u00edficas y T\u00e9cnicas (IBYME-CONICET), Buenos Aires C1428, Argentina"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2025, June 29). 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