{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T21:07:23Z","timestamp":1791925643187,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":127,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,3]],"date-time":"2025-09-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1756857600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD) presents a significant challenge in modern healthcare, prompting exploration into novel therapeutic strategies. This review clearly classifies different types of gold (Au) nanoparticles (NPs) (AuNPs), links them to the gut\u2013brain axis, highlights recent advances, and points out future research needs, offering a more updated perspective than earlier reviews. Diverse approaches have emerged from single to hybrid and functionalized AuNPs, including innovative nanotherapeutic agents like Au nanorods-polyethylene glycol-angiopep-2 peptide\/D1 peptide and noninvasive dynamic magnetic field-stimulated NPs. AuNPs have been reported for the neuroprotective properties. Clinical applications of AuNPs highlight their promise in diagnosis and therapeutic monitoring. However, challenges persist, notably in overcoming blood\u2013brain barrier limitations and refining drug delivery systems. Furthermore, the incomplete understanding of AD\u2019s physiological and pathological mechanisms hinders therapeutic development. Future research directions should prioritize elucidating these mechanisms and optimizing AuNPs physicochemical properties for therapeutic efficacy. Despite limitations, nanomaterial-based therapies hold promise for revolutionizing AD treatment and addressing other central nervous system disorders. It also emphasizes the importance of further investigation into the potential of AuNPs, envisioning a future where they serve as a cornerstone in advancing neurological healthcare.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics17091158","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,3]],"date-time":"2025-09-03T12:07:32Z","timestamp":1756901252000},"page":"1158","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Advances in Gold Nanoparticles for the Diagnosis and Management of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5499-8350","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bhagavathi Sundaram","family":"Sivamaruthi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Office of Research Administration, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand"},{"name":"Innovation Center for Holistic Health, Nutraceuticals, and Cosmeceuticals, Faculty of Pharmacy, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand"},{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Karpagam Academy of Higher Education, Coimbatore 641021, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3342-0947","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Periyanaina","family":"Kesika","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Office of Research Administration, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand"},{"name":"Innovation Center for Holistic Health, Nutraceuticals, and Cosmeceuticals, Faculty of Pharmacy, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3071-611X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Natarajan","family":"Sisubalan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"PG and Research Department of Botany, Pachaiyappa\u2019s College, Affiliated to University of Madras, Chennai 600030, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1633-2419","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chaiyavat","family":"Chaiyasut","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Innovation Center for Holistic Health, Nutraceuticals, and Cosmeceuticals, Faculty of Pharmacy, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra0909142","article-title":"Mechanisms of disease","volume":"362","author":"Querfurth","year":"2010","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1347","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2013.12.003","article-title":"Biomarker modeling of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"80","author":"Jack","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ra30","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.3007901","article-title":"Longitudinal change in CSF biomarkers in autosomal dominant Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"6","author":"Fagan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Patterson, C. (2018). World Alzheimer Report 2018: The State of the Art of Dementia Research: New Frontiers, Alzheimer\u2019s Disease International (ADI)."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2024). 2024 Alzheimer\u2019s disease facts and figures. Alzheimers Dement., 20, 3708\u20133821.","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.13809"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.3109\/1061186X.2013.876644","article-title":"Intranasal therapeutic strategies for management of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"22","author":"Sood","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Drug Target."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"1","article-title":"Key aspects in nanotechnology and drug delivery","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Arias","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nanotechnology and Drug Delivery: Nanoplatforms in Drug Delivery"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Singh, M., and Salnikova, M. (2015). Advances in nanotechnology-based drug delivery platforms and novel drug delivery systems. Novel Approaches and Strategies for Biologics, Vaccines and Cancer Therapies, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"247","article-title":"Effect of nano-composite materials on repair of ligament injury in sports detoxification","volume":"13","author":"Lu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Nan. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"269","article-title":"Sport and exercise impact on the therapy with nanomedicine in drug delivery","volume":"13","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Nano Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prakashkumar, N., Sivamaruthi, B.S., Chaiyasut, C., and Suganthy, N. (2021). Decoding the neuroprotective potential of methyl gallate-loaded starch nanoparticles against beta amyloid-induced oxidative stress-mediated apoptosis: An in vitro study. Pharmaceutics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics13030299"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13240","DOI":"10.1039\/D2NJ02009B","article-title":"Hybrid nanoparticles from chitosan and nickel for enhanced biocidal activities","volume":"46","author":"Karthikeyan","year":"2022","journal-title":"New J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sivamaruthi, B.S., Kapoor, D.U., Kukkar, R.R., Gaur, M., Elossaily, G.M., Prajapati, B.G., and Chaiyasut, C. (2023). Mesoporous silica nanoparticles: Types, synthesis, role in the treatment of Alzheimer\u2019s disease, and other applications. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics15122666"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sivamaruthi, B.S., Thangaleela, S., Kesika, P., Suganthy, N., and Chaiyasut, C. (2023). Mesoporous silica-based nanoplatforms are theranostic agents for the treatment of inflammatory disorders. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics15020439"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2003054","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202003054","article-title":"Recent advancements of nanomedicine in neurodegenerative disorders theranostics","volume":"30","author":"Mukherjee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Villiers, M.M., Aramwit, P., and Kwon, G.S. (2009). Controlled release and nanotechnology. Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-77667-5"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jscs.2012.12.009","article-title":"Advanced drug delivery systems: Nanotechnology of health design\u2014A review","volume":"18","author":"Safari","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Saudi Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, N.H., Mir, M., Ngowi, E.E., Zafar, U., Khakwani, M.M.A.K., Khattak, S., Zhai, Y.K., Jiang, E.S., Zheng, M., and Duan, S.F. (2021). Nanomedicine: A promising way to manage Alzheimer\u2019s disease. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2021.630055"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1054","DOI":"10.1016\/j.progpolymsci.2007.05.014","article-title":"Nanomedicine in the diagnosis and therapy of neurodegenerative disorders","volume":"32","author":"Kabanov","year":"2007","journal-title":"Progr. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2834","DOI":"10.1021\/nn900813b","article-title":"Ultrasensitive and highly selective detection of Alzheimer\u2019s disease biomarker using two-photon Rayleigh scattering properties of gold nanoparticle","volume":"3","author":"Neely","year":"2009","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2020.121257","article-title":"Analysis of Tau-441 protein in clinical samples using rGO\/AuNP nanocomposite-supported disposable impedimetric neuro-biosensing platform: Towards Alzheimer\u2019s disease detection","volume":"219","author":"Karaboga","year":"2020","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hong, S., Choi, D.W., Kim, H.N., Park, C.G., Lee, W., and Park, H.H. (2020). Protein-based nanoparticles as drug delivery systems. Pharmaceutics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics12070604"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1111\/jphp.12836","article-title":"Role of serum albumin as a nanoparticulate carrier for nose-to-brain delivery of R-flurbiprofen: Implications for the treatment of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"70","author":"Wong","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1310","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.201401922","article-title":"High performance asymmetric supercapacitors based on multilayer MnO2\/graphene oxide nanoflakes and hierarchical porous carbon with enhanced cycling stability","volume":"11","author":"Zhao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14657","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0404866101","article-title":"Immunotherapy for Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"101","author":"Gelinas","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11436","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M609690200","article-title":"Conformation-sensitive antibodies against Alzheimer amyloid by immunization with a thioredoxin-constrained B-cell epitope peptide","volume":"282","author":"Moretto","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18056","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.9b21800","article-title":"Multiplex protein imaging with secondary ion mass spectrometry using metal oxide nanoparticle-conjugated antibodies","volume":"12","author":"Moon","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2002804","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202002804","article-title":"Nitrogen-doped carbonized polymer dots: A potent scavenger and detector targeting Alzheimer\u2019s-amyloid plaques","volume":"16","author":"Gao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20220548","DOI":"10.1515\/ntrev-2022-0548","article-title":"Nanoparticles for the potential treatment of Alzheimer\u2019s disease: A physiopathological approach","volume":"12","author":"Morales","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nanotechnol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Mahendra, R., and Alka, Y. (2019). Gold nanoparticles in diagnosis and treatment of Alzheimer\u2019s disease. Nanobiotechnology in Neurodegenerative Diseases, Springer."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4790","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-18525-2","article-title":"Chiral gold nanoparticles enantioselectively rescue memory deficits in a mouse model of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"11","author":"Hou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2299","DOI":"10.1021\/acschemneuro.8b00622","article-title":"Impact of gold nanoparticles on amyloid \u03b2-induced Alzheimer\u2019s disease in a rat animal model: Involvement of STIM proteins","volume":"10","author":"Sanati","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Chem. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6490","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-016-0136-4","article-title":"Anthocyanin-loaded PEG-gold nanoparticles enhanced the neuroprotection of anthocyanins in an A\u03b21\u201342 mouse model of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"54","author":"Ali","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, J., Liu, R., Zhang, D., Zhang, Z., Zhu, J., Xu, L., and Guo, Y. (2021). Neuroprotective effects of maize tetrapeptide-anchored gold nanoparticles in Alzheimer\u2019s disease. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces, 200.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfb.2021.111584"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"926","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-019-01780-w","article-title":"Gold nanoparticles treatment reverses brain damage in Alzheimer\u2019s disease model","volume":"57","author":"Arruda","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chiang, M.C., Yang, Y.P., Nicol, C.J.B., and Wang, C.J. (2024). Gold Nanoparticles in Neurological Diseases: A Review of Neuroprotection. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25042360"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdelkader, N.F., El-Batal, A.I., Amin, Y.M., Hawas, A.M., Hassan, S.H.M., and Eid, N.I. (2022). Neuroprotective Effect of Gold Nanoparticles and Alpha-Lipoic Acid Mixture against Radiation-Induced Brain Damage in Rats. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23179640"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104992","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuint.2021.104992","article-title":"Nanogold induces anti-inflammation against oxidative stress induced in human neural stem cells exposed to amyloid-beta peptide","volume":"145","author":"Chiang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurochem. Int."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8605","DOI":"10.1039\/D3TB01023F","article-title":"Anti-inflammatory role of gold nanoparticles in the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"11","author":"Aili","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2020.03.040","article-title":"Nanogold Neuroprotection in Human Neural Stem Cells Against Amyloid-beta-induced Mitochondrial Dysfunction","volume":"435","author":"Chiang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1002\/ibra.12126","article-title":"Gold and silver nanoparticles in Alzheimer\u2019s and Parkinson\u2019s diagnostics and treatments","volume":"9","author":"Scarpa","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ibrain"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1240","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2013.10.015","article-title":"Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"1842","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e21990","DOI":"10.1002\/syn.21990","article-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Disease and Metabolic Syndrome: A Link from Oxidative Stress and Inflammation to Neurodegeneration","volume":"71","author":"Espinosa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Synapse"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tamagno, E., Guglielmotto, M., Vasciaveo, V., and Tabaton, M. (2021). Oxidative Stress and Beta Amyloid in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease. Which Comes First: The Chicken or the Egg?. Antioxidants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox10091479"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2498","DOI":"10.1093\/hmg\/ddab363","article-title":"Mitochondrial Oxidative Stress Contributes to the Pathological Aggregation and Accumulation of Tau Oligomers in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"31","author":"Du","year":"2022","journal-title":"Hum. Mol. Genet."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jalz.2018.02.018","article-title":"NIA-AA Research Framework: Toward a Biological Definition of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"14","author":"Jack","year":"2018","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1175","DOI":"10.1111\/jnc.16079","article-title":"Lipid imaging of Alzheimer\u2019s disease pathology","volume":"168","author":"Hanrieder","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)61349-9","article-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"377","author":"Ballard","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.2147\/CIA.S105769","article-title":"Genes associated with Alzheimer\u2019s disease: An overview and current status","volume":"11","author":"Giri","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Interv. Aging"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a006239","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a006239","article-title":"Epidemiology of Alzheimer disease","volume":"2","author":"Mayeux","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(95)90073-X","article-title":"Beta-amyloid precursor protein-deficient mice show reactive gliosis and decreased locomotor activity","volume":"81","author":"Zheng","year":"1995","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-neuro-061010-113613","article-title":"Amyloid precursor protein processing and Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"34","author":"Wong","year":"2011","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1126\/science.290.5489.150","article-title":"Structure of the protease domain of memapsin 2 (beta-secretase) complexed with inhibitor","volume":"290","author":"Hong","year":"2000","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1038\/nature02621","article-title":"Pathways towards and away from Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"430","author":"Mattson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferreira, S.T., Lourenco, M.V., Oliveira, M.M., and De Felice, F.G. (2015). Soluble amyloid-\u03b2 oligomers as synaptotoxins leading to cognitive impairment in Alzheimer\u2019s disease. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2015.00191"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6011","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1189-06.2006","article-title":"Different conformations of amyloid beta induce neurotoxicity by distinct mechanisms in human cortical neurons","volume":"26","author":"Deshpande","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925050","DOI":"10.4061\/2011\/925050","article-title":"Amyloid-beta interaction with mitochondria","volume":"2011","author":"Pagani","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Alzheimers Dis."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2990.2010.01156.x","article-title":"Microglial alterations in human Alzheimer\u2019s disease following A\u03b242 immunization","volume":"37","author":"Zotova","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118627","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2020.118627","article-title":"Role of gut-brain axis, gut microbial composition, and probiotic intervention in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"264","author":"Kesika","year":"2021","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105915","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jff.2023.105915","article-title":"Gut-brain axis and Alzheimer\u2019s disease: Therapeutic interventions and strategies","volume":"112","author":"Singh","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Funct. Foods"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1038\/nrgastro.2009.35","article-title":"Principles and clinical implications of the brain-gut-enteric microbiota axis","volume":"6","author":"Rhee","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1877","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00018.2018","article-title":"The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis","volume":"99","author":"Cryan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2017.12.009","article-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s disease and gut microbiota modifications: The long way between preclinical studies and clinical evidence","volume":"129","author":"Mancuso","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1021\/ja411096m","article-title":"68Ga-labeled gold glyconanoparticles for exploring blood-brain barrier permeability: Preparation, biodistribution studies, and improved brain uptake via neuropeptide conjugation","volume":"136","author":"Frigell","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"4919","article-title":"Peptides and proteins used to enhance gold nanoparticle delivery to the brain: Preclinical approaches","volume":"10","author":"Morales","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1023","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2016.1243088","article-title":"Mucus and microbiota as emerging players in gut nanotoxicology: The example of dietary silver and titanium dioxide nanoparticles","volume":"58","author":"Despax","year":"2018","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.impact.2017.07.005","article-title":"The effects of orally administered Ag, TiO2 and SiO2 nanoparticles on gut microbiota composition and colitis induction in mice","volume":"8","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"NanoImpact"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, S., Jiang, X., Boudreau, M.D., Feng, G., Miao, Y., Dong, S., Wu, H., Zeng, M., and Yin, J.J. (2018). Orally administered gold nanoparticles protect against colitis by attenuating Toll-like receptor 4- and reactive oxygen\/nitrogen species-mediated inflammatory responses but could induce gut dysbiosis in mice. J. Nanobiotechnol., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-018-0415-5"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5002","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.9b01002","article-title":"Gold nanoparticles cure bacterial infection with benefit to intestinal microflora","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deng, Z., Yang, C., Xiang, T., Dou, C., Sun, D., Dai, Q., Ling, Z., Xu, J., Luo, F., and Chen, Y. (2024). Gold nanoparticles exhibit anti-osteoarthritic effects via modulating interaction of the \u201cmicrobiota-gut-joint\u201d axis. J. Nanobiotechnol., 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-024-02447-y"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8392","DOI":"10.1039\/c2cc33568a","article-title":"Gold nanoparticle-based dot-blot immunoassay for sensitively detecting Alzheimer\u2019s disease related \u03b2-amyloid peptide","volume":"48","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4449","DOI":"10.1039\/C7CC00358G","article-title":"A gold nanoparticle-mediated rapid in vitro assay of anti-aggregation reagents for amyloid \u03b2 and its validation","volume":"53","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2389","DOI":"10.1039\/c0mb00057d","article-title":"Rapid and efficient screening of Alzheimer\u2019s disease \u03b2-amyloid inhibitors using label-free gold nanoparticles","volume":"6","author":"Geng","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Biosyst."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5004","DOI":"10.1039\/C4NR06009A","article-title":"Protein corona composition of gold nanoparticles\/nanorods affects amyloid beta fibrillation process","volume":"7","author":"Mirsadeghi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6661799","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/6661799","article-title":"Graphene oxide-gold star construct on triangular electrodes for Alzheimer\u2019s disease identification","volume":"2021","author":"Chang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Anal. Methods Chem."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1007\/s13404-023-00327-1","article-title":"Gold nanoparticles with amyloid-\u03b2 reduce neurocell cytotoxicity for the treatment and care of Alzheimer\u2019s disease therapy","volume":"56","author":"Hong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Gold Bull."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7209","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.0c00760","article-title":"Bifunctional Au@Pt\/Au core@shell nanoparticles as novel electrocatalytic tags in immunosensing: Application for Alzheimer\u2019s disease biomarker detection","volume":"92","author":"Novelli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcis.2019.05.066","article-title":"Quercetin-modified gold-palladium nanoparticles as a potential autophagy inducer for the treatment of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"552","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Colloid. Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"766","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-019-3903-x","article-title":"An electrochemical peptide-based biosensor for the Alzheimer biomarker amyloid-\u03b2 (1-42) using a microporous gold nanostructure","volume":"186","author":"Negahdary","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mikrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1039\/C9NA00578A","article-title":"Au\/NiFe2O4 nanoparticle-decorated graphene oxide nanosheets for electrochemical immunosensing of amyloid beta peptide","volume":"2","author":"Devi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nanoscale Adv."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2311","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S302396","article-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s disease determination by a dual probe on gold nanourchins and nanohorn hybrids","volume":"16","author":"Qiu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4107","DOI":"10.1039\/C7NR00699C","article-title":"The size-effect of gold nanoparticles and nanoclusters in the inhibition of amyloid-\u03b2 fibrillation","volume":"9","author":"Gao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3662","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.1c17861","article-title":"Gold nanorods with spatial separation of CeO2 deposition for plasmonic-enhanced antioxidant stress and photothermal therapy of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"14","author":"Ge","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2432","DOI":"10.1039\/C8TB00655E","article-title":"CLPFFD-PEG functionalized NIR-absorbing hollow gold nanospheres and gold nanorods inhibit \u03b2-amyloid aggregation","volume":"6","author":"Ruff","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e7000","DOI":"10.1002\/aoc.7000","article-title":"Biogenic synthesis of gold nanoparticles using Heliotropium eichwaldi L and neuroprotective potential via anticholinesterase inhibition in rat brain","volume":"37","author":"Sher","year":"2023","journal-title":"Appl. Organomet. Chem."},{"key":"ref_86","first-page":"4491","article-title":"Mimosine functionalized gold nanoparticles (Mimo-AuNPs) suppress \u03b2-amyloid aggregation and neuronal toxicity","volume":"6","author":"Anand","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bioact. Mater."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, B., Sheng, X., Xie, H., Zhou, S., Zhong, M., and Liu, A. (2022). Inhibition of Alzheimer\u2019s A\u03b21\u201342 fibrillogenesis and removal of copper ions by polypeptides modified gold nanoparticles. Chem. Biodivers., 19.","DOI":"10.1002\/cbdv.202200342"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125042","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2023.125042","article-title":"Electrochemical magneto-immunoassay for detection of ADAM10 Alzheimer\u2019s biomarker using gold nanoparticles as label","volume":"266","author":"Manzine","year":"2024","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_89","first-page":"478","article-title":"Bioactive superparamagnetic iron oxide-gold nanoparticles regulated by a dynamic magnetic field induce neuronal Ca2+ influx and differentiation","volume":"26","author":"Georgas","year":"2023","journal-title":"Bioact. Mater."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Palma-Florez, S., L\u00f3pez-Canosa, A., Moralez-Zavala, F., Casta\u00f1o, O., Kogan, M.J., Samitier, J., Lagunas, A., and Mir, M. (2023). BBB-on-a-chip with integrated micro-TEER for permeability evaluation of multi-functionalized gold nanorods against Alzheimer\u2019s disease. J. Nanobiotechnol., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-023-01798-2"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3819","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.3c12750","article-title":"Detection of Femtomolar Amyloid-\u03b2 Peptides for Early-Stage Identification of Alzheimer\u2019s Amyloid-\u03b2 Aggregation with Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles","volume":"16","author":"Chang","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1007\/s12257-024-00010-y","article-title":"Green synthesis of gold nanoparticles using Acorus calamus leaf extract and study on their anti-Alzheimer potential","volume":"29","author":"Peng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Bioprocess Eng."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e202502115","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.202502115","article-title":"Chiral Gold Nanostructure Monolayers as SERS Substrates for Ultrasensitive Detection of Enantiomer Biomarkers of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"64","author":"Hao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.1021\/acschemneuro.4c00766","article-title":"Enhanced Cognitive and Memory Functions via Gold Nanoparticle-Mediated Delivery of Afzelin through Synaptic Modulation Pathways in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Mouse Models","volume":"16","author":"Mun","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Chem. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2018.06.006","article-title":"Plasma \u03b2 amyloid1\u201342 reference values in cognitively normal subjects","volume":"391","author":"Zecca","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"904","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2006.03.004","article-title":"Plasma levels of beta amyloid (1\u201342) in Alzheimer\u2019s disease and mild cognitive impairment","volume":"27","author":"Pesaresi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Aging"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.56.6.673","article-title":"Cerebrospinal fluid \u03b2-amyloid (1-42) in Alzheimer disease: Differences between early- and late-onset Alzheimer disease and stability during the course of disease","volume":"56","author":"Andreasen","year":"1999","journal-title":"Arch. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Zhou, L., Liu, Y., Ban, F., Yang, Z., Zhang, Y., Hu, X., and Zhang, Y. (2025). Screening for Anti-A\u03b2 Aggregation Activity of Marine Fungal Natural Products Based on a Gold Nanoparticle Method. Chem. Biodivers., 22.","DOI":"10.1002\/cbdv.202401809"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1071","DOI":"10.1007\/s10876-019-01712-7","article-title":"Synthesis of chiral penicillamine-coated gold nanoparticles and effect on PC12 cells for the treatment of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"31","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clust. Sci."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1007\/s11051-025-06387-y","article-title":"Green-synthesized gold nanoparticles exhibit neuroprotective activity against oxidative stress-induced damage in SH-SY5Y cells","volume":"27","author":"Nkentsha","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Nanopart. Res."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, L., Tao, Y., Jiang, Y., and Qin, F. (2023). Recent progress of nanomedicine in the treatment of Alzheimer\u2019s disease. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2023.1228679"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duan, L., Li, X., Ji, R., Hao, Z., Kong, M., Wen, X., Guan, F., and Ma, S. (2023). Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery Systems: An Inspiring Therapeutic Strategy for Neurodegenerative Diseases. Polymers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym15092196"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1979","DOI":"10.2217\/nnm-2023-0261","article-title":"Recent advances in nanomaterials for neural applications: Opportunities and challenges","volume":"18","author":"Sisubalan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nanomedicine"},{"key":"ref_104","unstructured":"(2025, August 21). ClinicalTrials.gov, Available online: https:\/\/www.clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03815916."},{"key":"ref_105","unstructured":"(2025, August 21). ClinicalTrials.gov, Available online: https:\/\/www.clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT04626921."},{"key":"ref_106","unstructured":"(2025, August 21). ClinicalTrials.gov, Available online: https:\/\/www.clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT04098406."},{"key":"ref_107","unstructured":"(2025, August 21). ClinicalTrials.gov, Available online: https:\/\/www.clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03993171."},{"key":"ref_108","unstructured":"(2025, August 21). ClinicalTrials.gov, Available online: https:\/\/www.clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT05299658."},{"key":"ref_109","unstructured":"(2025, August 21). ClinicalTrials.gov, Available online: https:\/\/www.clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03806478."},{"key":"ref_110","unstructured":"(2025, August 21). ClinicalTrials.gov, Available online: https:\/\/www.clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03843710."},{"key":"ref_111","unstructured":"(2025, August 21). ClinicalTrials.gov, Available online: https:\/\/www.clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT03536559."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8662","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1307152110","article-title":"Transcytosis and brain uptake of transferrin-containing nanoparticles by tuning avidity to transferrin receptor","volume":"110","author":"Wiley","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2023.04.022","article-title":"Spatiotemporal tracking of gold nanorods after intranasal administration for brain targeting","volume":"357","author":"Han","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70263","DOI":"10.1111\/cns.70263","article-title":"Intranasal Administration of a Novel ApoE-Mimetic Peptide-Coated Gold Nanoparticles as Therapy for Ischemic Stroke","volume":"31","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"CNS Neurosci. Ther."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1177\/1091581819863130","article-title":"Toxicological Behavior of Gold Nanoparticles on Various Models: Influence of Physicochemical Properties and Other Factors","volume":"38","author":"Adewale","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.8b03227","article-title":"Identifying Trends in Gold Nanoparticle Toxicity and Uptake: Size, Shape, Capping Ligand, and Biological Corona","volume":"4","author":"Carnovale","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4103","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S443168","article-title":"Long-Term Accumulation, Biological Effects and Toxicity of BSA-Coated Gold Nanoparticles in the Mouse Liver, Spleen, and Kidneys","volume":"19","author":"Jakic","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Niznik, \u0141., Noga, M., Kobylarz, D., Frydrych, A., Kro\u015bniak, A., Kapka-Skrzypczak, L., and Jurowski, K. (2024). Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs)-Toxicity, Safety and Green Synthesis: A Critical Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25074057"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sani, A., Cao, C., and Cui, D. (2021). Toxicity of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs): A review. Biochem. Biophys. Rep., 26.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrep.2021.100991"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503827","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mrgentox.2024.503827","article-title":"Impact of gold nanoparticle exposure on genetic material","volume":"900","author":"Touzani","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mutat. Res. Genet. Toxicol. Environ. Mutagen."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1186\/1745-6673-8-32","article-title":"Gold nanoparticles: Recent aspects for human toxicology","volume":"8","author":"Gerber","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Occup. Med. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aljohani, F.S., Hamed, M.T., Bakr, B.A., Shahin, Y.H., Abu-Serie, M.M., Awaad, A.K., El-Kady, H., and Elwakil, B.H. (2022). In vivo bio-distribution and acute toxicity evaluation of greenly synthesized ultra-small gold nanoparticles with different biological activities. Sci. Rep., 12.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-10251-7"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4628","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2012.03.020","article-title":"In vivo renal clearance, biodistribution, toxicity of gold nanoclusters","volume":"33","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1683","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.201402233","article-title":"Storage of gold nanoclusters in muscle leads to their biphasic in vivo clearance","volume":"11","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1962","DOI":"10.1177\/09603271211017611","article-title":"Biochemical assessment of the neurotoxicity of gold nanoparticles functionalized with colorectal cancer-targeting peptides in a rat model","volume":"40","author":"Pereira","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hum. Exp. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2016.10.045","article-title":"Rapid and efficient crossing blood-brain barrier: Hydrophobic drug delivery system based on propionylated amylose helix nanoclusters","volume":"113","author":"Gao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar, A., Chaudhary, R.K., Singh, R., Singh, S.P., Wang, S.Y., Hoe, Z.Y., Pan, C.T., Shiue, Y.L., Wei, D.Q., and Kaushik, A.C. (2020). Nanotheranostic applications for detection and targeting neurodegenerative diseases. Front. Neurosci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2020.00305"}],"container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/17\/9\/1158\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:38:49Z","timestamp":1760035129000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/17\/9\/1158"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,3]]},"references-count":127,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["pharmaceutics17091158"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pharmaceutics17091158","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4923"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4923","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,3]]}}}