{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T21:08:59Z","timestamp":1792789739683,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":95,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]],"date-time":"2025-09-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758153600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Engineering Laboratory for Tarim Animal Diseases Diagnosis and Control of Xinjiang Production and Construction Production &amp; Construction Corps","award":["ELDC202403"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ELDC202403"]}]},{"name":"Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions (PAPD)","award":["ELDC202403"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ELDC202403"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Nanoparticle-based transdermal drug delivery systems (TDDS) have emerged as a revolutionary approach for antiparasitic therapy, addressing key challenges such as poor bioavailability, systemic toxicity, and drug resistance. This review highlights the advancements in nanotechnology-driven TDDS for combating zoonotic parasitic diseases, including leishmaniasis, malaria, and infections treated by broad-spectrum drugs like ivermectin and albendazole. By leveraging nanocarriers such as liposomes, nanoemulsions, and microneedles, which enhance skin permeation, enable controlled drug release, and improve targeting specificity. For instance, deformable transfersomes and ethosomes achieve high transdermal efficiency without chemical adjuvants, while microneedle arrays physically bypass the stratum corneum for precise delivery. Furthermore, sustained-release hydrogels and stimuli-responsive nanoparticles optimize therapeutic efficacy and reduce adverse effects. Despite promising results, clinical translation faces challenges in manufacturing scalability, long-term safety, and accessibility in resource-limited settings. Future directions include bioinspired nanocarriers, artificial intelligence (AI)-driven design, and integration with global health initiatives like \u201cOne Health\u201d, all aimed at ensuring equitable implementation. This review highlights the transformative potential of nanotechnology in achieving sustainable antiparasitic solutions for zoonotic diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics17091216","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]],"date-time":"2025-09-18T14:45:46Z","timestamp":1758206746000},"page":"1216","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Nanoformulation-Based Transdermal Drug Delivery: A Paradigm Shift in Antiparasitic Therapy for Zoonotic Diseases"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Yuan","family":"Zhao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Nanjing 210095, China"},{"name":"Center for Veterinary Drug Research and Evaluation, Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Nanjing 210095, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ruoxuan","family":"Xiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Nanjing 210095, China"},{"name":"Center for Veterinary Drug Research and Evaluation, Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Nanjing 210095, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chengxiang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Nanjing 210095, China"},{"name":"Center for Veterinary Drug Research and Evaluation, Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Nanjing 210095, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Junqi","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Nanjing 210095, China"},{"name":"Center for Veterinary Drug Research and Evaluation, Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Nanjing 210095, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dawei","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Nanjing 210095, China"},{"name":"Center for Veterinary Drug Research and Evaluation, Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Nanjing 210095, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5170-1670","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wanhe","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Animal Science and Technology, Tarim University, Alar 843300, China"},{"name":"Engineering Laboratory of Tarim Animal Diseases Diagnosis and Control, Xinjiang Production & Construction Corps, Alaer 843300, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shanxiang","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Nanjing 210095, China"},{"name":"Center for Veterinary Drug Research and Evaluation, Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Nanjing 210095, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhiyi","family":"Ge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Animal Science and Technology, Tarim University, Alar 843300, China"},{"name":"Engineering Laboratory of Tarim Animal Diseases Diagnosis and Control, Xinjiang Production & Construction Corps, Alaer 843300, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiuge","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Nanjing 210095, China"},{"name":"Center for Veterinary Drug Research and Evaluation, Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Nanjing 210095, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2025, May 01). Global Report on Neglected Tropical Diseases 2024. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/teams\/control-of-neglected-tropical-diseases\/global-report-on-neglected-tropical-diseases-2024."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4073","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-021-07221-9","article-title":"Zoonotic Parasites: The One Health Challenge","volume":"120","author":"Otranto","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sokolow, S.H., Wood, C.L., Jones, I.J., Swartz, S.J., Lopez, M., Hsieh, M.H., Lafferty, K.D., Kuris, A.M., Rickards, C., and De Leo, G.A. (2016). Global Assessment of Schistosomiasis Control Over the Past Century Shows Targeting the Snail Intermediate Host Works Best. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004794"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics7040438","article-title":"Transdermal Drug Delivery: Innovative Pharmaceutical Developments Based on Disruption of the Barrier Properties of the Stratum Corneum","volume":"7","author":"Alkilani","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pharmaceutics"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1443","DOI":"10.4155\/tde.13.104","article-title":"Basics and Recent Advances in Peptide and Protein Drug Delivery","volume":"4","author":"Bruno","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ther. Deliv."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5598","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2010.03.010","article-title":"Trans Location of Cell Penetrating Peptide Engrafted Nanoparticles across Skin Layers","volume":"31","author":"Patlolla","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2630","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbagen.2017.07.003","article-title":"Tip-Enhanced Raman Scattering for Tracking of Invasomes in the Stratum Corneum","volume":"1861","author":"Ashtikar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta (BBA)\u2014Gen. Subj."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1517\/17425247.2014.875528","article-title":"Skin Permeabilization for Transdermal Drug Delivery: Recent Advances and Future Prospects","volume":"11","author":"Schoellhammer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1713","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cclet.2018.10.037","article-title":"Nano-Formulations for Transdermal Drug Delivery: A Review","volume":"29","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chin. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsb.2016.09.001","article-title":"Nanotechnology-Based Strategies for Treatment of Ocular Disease","volume":"7","author":"Weng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Pharm. Sin. B"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1517\/13543784.12.2.197","article-title":"Delivery Strategies for Antiparasitics","volume":"12","author":"Kayser","year":"2003","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Investig. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfb.2013.07.066","article-title":"Preparation of Liposomes: A Novel Application of Microengineered Membranes-From Laboratory Scale to Large Scale","volume":"112","author":"Laouini","year":"2013","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2042-7158.1987.tb03407.x","article-title":"Effect of Egg Yolk Lecithin on Transdermal Delivery of Bunazosin Hydrochloride","volume":"39","author":"Kato","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-2760(96)00126-9","article-title":"Interaction of Liposomes with Human Skin In Vitro\u2014The Influence of Lipid Composition and Structure","volume":"1304","author":"Kirjavainen","year":"1996","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta (BBA)\u2014Lipids Lipid Metab."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-3659(98)00152-7","article-title":"Phospholipids Affect Stratum Corneum Lipid Bilayer Fluidity and Drug Partitioning into the Bilayers","volume":"58","author":"Kirjavainen","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1211\/jpp.58.4.0001","article-title":"Can Drug-Bearing Liposomes Penetrate Intact Skin?","volume":"58","author":"Williams","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1208\/s12249-021-02166-9","article-title":"Transfersomes: A Revolutionary Nanosystem for Efficient Transdermal Drug Delivery","volume":"23","author":"Akram","year":"2021","journal-title":"AAPS PharmSciTech"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2017.10.046","article-title":"Lipid Nanocarriers as Skin Drug Delivery Systems: Properties, Mechanisms of Skin Interactions and Medical Applications","volume":"535","author":"Sala","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1007\/s12247-021-09572-3","article-title":"Lipid-Based Vesicles: A Non-Invasive Tool for Transdermal Drug Delivery","volume":"17","author":"Raj","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Innov."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1798","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xphs.2022.01.010","article-title":"Designing, Optimization and Characterization of Trifluralin Transfersomal Gel to Passively Target Cutaneous Leishmaniasis","volume":"111","author":"Khan","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e21939","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e21939","article-title":"Nitazoxanide and Quercetin Co-Loaded Nanotransfersomal Gel for Topical Treatment of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis with Macrophage Targeting and Enhanced Anti-Leishmanial Effect","volume":"9","author":"Bashir","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4239","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S83402","article-title":"Compound Antimalarial Ethosomal Cataplasm: Preparation, Evaluation, and Mechanism of Penetration Enhancement","volume":"10","author":"Shen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102318","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cis.2020.102318","article-title":"A Critical Review of Synthesis Procedures, Applications and Future Potential of Nanoemulsions","volume":"287","author":"Naseema","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Colloid. Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sghier, K., Mur, M., Veiga, F., Paiva-Santos, A.C., and Pires, P.C. (2024). Novel Therapeutic Hybrid Systems Using Hydrogels and Nanotechnology: A Focus on Nanoemulgels for the Treatment of Skin Diseases. Gels, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels10010045"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coelho, D., Veleirinho, B., Mazzarino, L., Alberti, T., Buzanello, E., Oliveira, R.E., Yunes, R.A., Moraes, M., Steindel, M., and Maraschin, M. (2021). Polyvinyl Alcohol-Based Electrospun Matrix as a Delivery System for Nanoemulsion Containing Chalcone against Leishmania (Leishmania) Amazonensis. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces, 198.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfb.2020.111390"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e202300108","DOI":"10.1002\/ardp.202300108","article-title":"Nanoemulsions for Increased Penetrability and Sustained Release of Leishmanicidal Compounds","volume":"356","author":"Garcia","year":"2023","journal-title":"Arch. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.3109\/1061186X.2012.741136","article-title":"Polymer Microneedles for Transdermal Drug Delivery","volume":"21","author":"Lee","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Drug Target."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2022.08.022","article-title":"3D-Printed Microneedle Arrays for Drug Delivery","volume":"350","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106807","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jddst.2025.106807","article-title":"Combination of Lipid-Based Nanoparticles with Microneedles as a Promising Strategy for Enhanced Transdermal Delivery Systems: A Comprehensive Review","volume":"107","author":"Gunawan","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dumitriu Buzia, O., P\u0103duraru, A.M., Stefan, C.S., Dinu, M., Coco\u0219, D.I., Nwabudike, L.C., and Tatu, A.L. (2023). Strategies for Improving Transdermal Administration: New Approaches to Controlled Drug Release. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics15041183"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2021.05.075","article-title":"Dissolvable Carboxymethyl Cellulose\/Polyvinylpyrrolidone Microneedle Arrays for Transdermal Delivery of Amphotericin B to Treat Cutaneous Leishmaniasis","volume":"182","author":"Zare","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111762","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpolymj.2022.111762","article-title":"Application of Multipolymers System in the Development of Hydrogel-Forming Microneedle Integrated with Polyethylene Glycol Reservoir for Transdermal Delivery of Albendazole","volume":"183","author":"Mahfufah","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. Polym. J."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1477","DOI":"10.2174\/1568026623666230417083401","article-title":"Role of Nanomedicines in Controlling Malaria: A Review","volume":"23","author":"Sharma","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nahanji, M.K., Mahboobian, M.M., Harchegani, A.L., Mohebali, M., Fallah, M., Nourian, A., Motavallihaghi, S., and Maghsood, A.H. (2024). Enhancing the Efficacy of Fluconazole against Leishmania Major: Formulation and Evaluation of FLZ-Nanoemulsions for Topical Delivery. Biomed. Pharmacother., 178.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2024.117109"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmgm.2023.108497","article-title":"Exploring the Potential of Antimalarial Nanocarriers as a Novel Therapeutic Approach","volume":"122","author":"Deshmukh","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Mol. Graph. Model."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1186\/s11671-023-03955-w","article-title":"Development of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles-Loaded Drugs in Parasitic Diseases","volume":"19","author":"Nemati","year":"2024","journal-title":"Discov. Nano"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1080\/03639045.2024.2443007","article-title":"Ameliorated Delivery of Amphotericin B to Macrophages Using Chondroitin Sulfate Surface-Modified Liposome Nanoparticles","volume":"51","author":"Azim","year":"2025","journal-title":"Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"app.41613","DOI":"10.1002\/app.41613","article-title":"Controlled Dual Release Study of Curcumin and a 4-aminoquinoline Analog from Gum Acacia Containing Hydrogels","volume":"132","author":"Aderibigbe","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43918","DOI":"10.1002\/app.43918","article-title":"Dual Release Kinetics of Antimalarials from Soy Protein Isolate-Carbopol-Polyacrylamide Based Hydrogels","volume":"133","author":"Aderibigbe","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1080\/21691401.2017.1307207","article-title":"Ivermection-Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: Preparation, Characterisation, Stability and Transdermal Behaviour","volume":"46","author":"Guo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Artif. Cells Nanomed. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"286","article-title":"Anti-Leishmanial Effects of Chitosan-Polyethylene Oxide Nanofibers Containing Berberine: An Applied Model for Leishmania Wound Dressing","volume":"45","author":"Rahimi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Iran. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"788","article-title":"Chitosan-Based Nano-Scaffolds as Antileishmanial Wound Dressing in BALB\/c Mice Treatment: Characterization and Design of Tissue Regeneration","volume":"23","author":"Rahimi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Iran. J. Basic. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Golshirazi, A., Mohammadzadeh, M., and Labbaf, S. (2025). The Synergistic Potential of Hydrogel Microneedles and Nanomaterials: Breaking Barriers in Transdermal Therapy. Macromol. Biosci., 25.","DOI":"10.1002\/mabi.202400228"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alex, M., Alsawaftah, N.M., and Husseini, G.A. (2024). State-of-All-the-Art and Prospective Hydrogel-Based Transdermal Drug Delivery Systems. Appl. Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/app14072926"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.23-0116","article-title":"A Novel Topical Formulation of the Leishmaniasis Drug Glucantime as a Nanostructured Lipid Carrier-Based Hydrogel","volume":"109","author":"Dehghani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.2217\/nnm-2019-0320","article-title":"Rifampicin-Loaded Nanotransferosomal Gel for Treatment of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis: Passive Targeting Via Topical Route","volume":"15","author":"Rabia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nanomedicine"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4630","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2015.06.054","article-title":"Elastic Liposome-Mediated Transdermal Immunization Enhanced the Immunogenicity of P. Falciparum Surface Antigen, MSP-119","volume":"33","author":"Tyagi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"990","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2015.1116656","article-title":"Transdermal Immunization of P-Falciparum Surface Antigen (MSP-119) via Elastic Liposomes Confers Robust Immunogenicity","volume":"12","author":"Tyagi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccines Immunother."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2017.10.016","article-title":"Artesunate-Quercetin\/Luteolin Dual Drug Nanofacilitated Synergistic Treatment for Malaria: A Plausible Approach to Overcome Artemisinin Combination Therapy Resistance","volume":"109","author":"Puttappa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Courtenay, O., Peters, N.C., Rogers, M.E., and Bern, C. (2017). Combining Epidemiology with Basic Biology of Sand Flies, Parasites, and Hosts to Inform Leishmaniasis Transmission Dynamics and Control. PLoS Pathog., 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1006571"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)31204-2","article-title":"Leishmaniasis","volume":"392","author":"Burza","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2011.05.011","article-title":"Leishmania\u2013Macrophage Interactions: Insights into the Redox Biology","volume":"51","author":"Deschacht","year":"2011","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10369","DOI":"10.1021\/cr400552x","article-title":"Fruitful Decade for Antileishmanial Compounds from 2002 to Late 2011","volume":"114","author":"Hussain","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(07)70209-8","article-title":"Cutaneous Leishmaniasis","volume":"7","author":"Reithinger","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(05)70296-6","article-title":"Treatment Options for Visceral Leishmaniasis: A Systematic Review of Clinical Studies Done in India, 1980\u20132004","volume":"5","author":"Olliaro","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1517\/14656566.2015.973850","article-title":"An Update on Pharmacotherapy for Leishmaniasis","volume":"16","author":"Sundar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1725","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.0c01132","article-title":"Nano- and Microformulations to Advance Therapies for Visceral Leishmaniasis","volume":"7","author":"Varma","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23873","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.5c00046","article-title":"Lipid-Based Nanocarriers for Topical Therapy of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis: An Insight into the Mechanism of Action","volume":"10","author":"Riaz","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Romero, A.H., Gonzalez, K.N., and Sabino, M.A. (2025). Application of Nano and Microformulations to Improve the Leishmanicidal Response of Quinoline Compounds: A Brief Review. Front. Chem., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fchem.2025.1622566"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2018.06.018","article-title":"Promising Nanotherapy in Treating Leishmaniasis","volume":"547","author":"Marins","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105906","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2020.105906","article-title":"Searching for Drugs for Chagas Disease, Leishmaniasis and Schistosomiasis: A Review","volume":"55","author":"Santos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2020.06.240","article-title":"Glucantime-Loaded Electrospun Core-Shell Nanofibers Composed of Poly(Ethylene Oxide)\/Gelatin-Poly(Vinyl Alcohol)\/Chitosan as Dressing for Cutaneous Leishmaniasis","volume":"163","author":"Alishahi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2024.124275","article-title":"Tailored Green Synthesized Silymarin-Selenium Nanoparticles: Topical Nanocarrier of Promising Antileishmanial Activity","volume":"660","author":"Mansour","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119390","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2020.119390","article-title":"A TLR9-Adjuvanted Vaccine Formulated into Dissolvable Microneedle Patches or Cationic Liposomes Protects against Leishmaniasis after Skin or Subcutaneous Immunization","volume":"586","author":"Lanza","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"10","article-title":"Topical Treatment of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis: Wound Reduction in Mice Using N-Methyl Glucamine from PVP and Nano Clay Membranes","volume":"2","author":"Regina","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Dermatol. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105805","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2020.105805","article-title":"Influence of Gamma Radiation on Amphotericin B Incorporated in PVP Hydrogel as an Alternative Treatment for Cutaneous Leishmaniosis","volume":"215","author":"Oliveira","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2019.04.020","article-title":"Nano-Facilitated Drug Delivery Strategies in the Treatment of Plasmodium Infection","volume":"195","author":"Puttappa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2024.125163","article-title":"Emerging Nanotechnology-Driven Drug Delivery Solutions for Malaria: Addressing Drug Resistance and Improving Therapeutic Success","volume":"670","author":"Mishra","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.1080\/1061186X.2017.1390671","article-title":"Optimisation of Chloroquine Phosphate Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carriers Using Box-Behnken Design and Its Antimalarial Efficacy","volume":"26","author":"Baruah","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Drug Target."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1002\/ddr.21010","article-title":"Malaria Intervention Policies and Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology as a Potential Tool for Malaria Management","volume":"73","author":"Kuntworbe","year":"2012","journal-title":"Drug Dev. Res."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2009.11.024","article-title":"Nanotechnology Applied to the Treatment of Malaria","volume":"62","author":"Mosqueira","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"864","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro2239","article-title":"Artemisinin-Based Combination Therapies: A Vital Tool in Efforts to Eliminate Malaria","volume":"7","author":"Eastman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"1","article-title":"Transdermal Films and Nanogels as Toolboxes for Novel Generation of Non-Invasive Antimalarial Pharmaceuticals in Dermatology: A Comprehensive Review","volume":"3","author":"Kenechukwu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biomed. Mater. Devices"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpddr.2021.05.008","article-title":"Transdermal Delivery of Artemisinins for Treatment of Pre-Clinical Cerebral Malaria","volume":"16","author":"Zech","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol.-Drugs Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2016.02.041","article-title":"In Vitro Skin Permeation of Artemisone and Its Nano-Vesicular Formulations","volume":"503","author":"Dwivedi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4992","DOI":"10.1002\/jps.22191","article-title":"Curcumin-Loaded Hydrogel Nanoparticles: Application in Anti-Malarial Therapy and Toxicological Evaluation","volume":"99","author":"Dandekar","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apjtm.2016.10.008","article-title":"Asiatic Acid-Pectin Hydrogel Matrix Patch Transdermal Delivery System Influences Parasitaemia Suppression and Inflammation Reduction in P. Berghei Murine Malaria Infected Sprague\u2014Dawley Rats","volume":"9","author":"Tagumirwa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Trop. Med."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2014.10.004","article-title":"Development of Artemether-Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carrier (NLC) Formulation for Topical Application","volume":"477","author":"Nnamani","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121204","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2021.121204","article-title":"Combination of Transdermal Patches and Solid Microneedles for Improved Transdermal Delivery of Primaquine","volume":"609","author":"Ananda","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gomes, D.C., Medeiros, T.S., Alves Pereira, E.L., Da Silva, J.F.O., De Freitas Oliveira, J.W., Fernandes-Pedrosa, M.D.F., De Sousa Da Silva, M., and Da Silva-J\u00fanior, A.A. (2023). From Benznidazole to New Drugs: Nanotechnology Contribution in Chagas Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241813778"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38745","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.1c11179","article-title":"Albendazole Nanocrystal-Based Dissolving Microneedles with Improved Pharmacokinetic Performance for Enhanced Treatment of Cystic Echinococcosis","volume":"13","author":"Permana","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"s492","DOI":"10.5530\/ijper.54.3s.148","article-title":"Effective Single Drug Treatment of Lymphatic Filariasis through Enhanced Transdermal Delivery of Ivermectin Liposomes Using Solid and Dissolving Microneedles","volume":"54","author":"Devineni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Indian J. Pharm. Educ. Res."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2019.10.004","article-title":"Solid Lipid Nanoparticle-Based Dissolving Microneedles: A Promising Intradermal Lymph Targeting Drug Delivery System with Potential for Enhanced Treatment of Lymphatic Filariasis","volume":"316","author":"Permana","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100677","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijregi.2025.100677","article-title":"Utilization of Health Facilities and Schools in Onchocerciasis Elimination Efforts","volume":"16","author":"Manna","year":"2025","journal-title":"IJID Reg."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Okumura, N., Torii, A., Suzuki, D., Ito, K., Iwade, K., and Takahashi, K. (2025). A Case Report of Disseminated Strongyloidiasis Following Chemoradiotherapy for Lung Cancer in a Patient Living in a Non-Endemic Area in Japan. Intern. Med., 1\u20136.","DOI":"10.2169\/internalmedicine.5829-25"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Das, S., Lee, S.H., Chia, V.D., Chow, P.S., Macbeath, C., Liu, Y., and Shlieout, G. (2020). Development of Microemulsion Based Topical Ivermectin Formulations: Pre-Formulation and Formulation Studies. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces, 189.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfb.2020.110823"},{"key":"ref_87","first-page":"100210","article-title":"Formulation and Optimization of Ivermectin Nanocrystals for Enhanced Topical Delivery","volume":"6","author":"Awad","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm. X"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Steenekamp, E.M., Liebenberg, W., Lemmer, H.J.R., and Gerber, M. (2024). Formulation and Ex Vivo Evaluation of Ivermectin Within Different Nano-Drug Delivery Vehicles for Transdermal Drug Delivery. Pharmaceutics, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics16111466"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Velho, M.C., Funk, N.L., Deon, M., Benvenutti, E.V., Buchner, S., Hinrichs, R., Pilger, D.A., and Beck, R.C.R. (2024). Ivermectin-Loaded Mesoporous Silica and Polymeric Nanocapsules: Impact on Drug Loading, In Vitro Solubility Enhancement, and Release Performance. Pharmaceutics, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics16030325"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11071","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S476164","article-title":"Penetration Enhancer-Free Mixed Micelles for Improving Eprinomectin Transdermal c Efficiency in Animal Parasitic Infections Therapy","volume":"19","author":"Mao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berger, S.N., and Rustum, A.M. (2025). A Comprehensive Study to Identify Major Degradation Products of Avermectin Active Ingredient Using High Resolution LCMS and NMR. J. Liq. Chromatogr. Relat. Technol., 1\u201311.","DOI":"10.1080\/10826076.2025.2493203"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Souza, D.K., and Bockarie, M.J. (2025). Current Perspectives in the Epidemiology and Control of Lymphatic Filariasis. Clin. Microbiol. Rev., 38.","DOI":"10.1128\/cmr.00126-23"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karakoyun, \u00d6., Ayhan, E., and Y\u0131ld\u0131z, \u0130. (2025). Effect of Ivermectin on Scabies: A Retrospective Evaluation. BMC Infect. Dis., 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-025-11315-5"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2037","DOI":"10.1021\/acsinfecdis.5c00340","article-title":"Synthesis and Multidisciplinary Preclinical Investigations of Ferrocenyl, Ruthenocenyl, and Benzyl Derivatives of Thiabendazole as New Drug Candidates against Soil-Transmitted Helminth Infections","volume":"11","author":"Karpstein","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bai, S., Zhang, M., Tang, S., Li, M., Wu, R., Wan, S., Chen, L., Wei, X., and Li, F. (2024). Research Progress on Benzimidazole Fungicides: A Review. Molecules, 29.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202401.1179.v1"}],"container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/17\/9\/1216\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:48:15Z","timestamp":1760035695000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/17\/9\/1216"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]]},"references-count":95,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["pharmaceutics17091216"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pharmaceutics17091216","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4923"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4923","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]]}}}