{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]],"date-time":"2026-10-26T01:22:55Z","timestamp":1792977775017,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":138,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]],"date-time":"2025-10-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760486400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Complutense University of Madrid Research Group","award":["971089"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["971089"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02p0gd045","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004837","name":"Ministry of Science and Innovation\u2013Agencia Estatal de Investigaci\u00f3n","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PID2024-156769OB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2024-156769OB-I00"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004837","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Exosomes, naturally derived extracellular vesicles, have emerged as powerful bio-nanocarriers in precision medicine. Their endogenous origin, biocompatibility, and ability to encapsulate and deliver diverse therapeutic payloads position them as transformative tools in drug delivery, gene therapy, and regenerative medicine. This review presents a comprehensive analysis of exosome-based therapeutics across multiple biomedical domains, including cancer, neurological and infectious diseases, immune modulation, and tissue repair. Exosomes derived from stem cells, immune cells, or engineered lines can be loaded with small molecules, RNA, or CRISPR-Cas systems, offering highly specific and low-immunogenic alternatives to viral vectors or synthetic nanoparticles. We explore endogenous and exogenous loading strategies, surface functionalization techniques for targeted delivery, and innovations that allow exosomes to traverse physiological barriers such as the blood\u2013brain barrier. Furthermore, exosomes demonstrate immunomodulatory and regenerative properties in autoimmune and degenerative conditions, with promising roles in skin rejuvenation and cosmeceuticals. Despite their potential, challenges remain in large-scale production, cargo loading efficiency, and regulatory translation. Recent clinical trials and industry efforts underscore the accelerating momentum in this field. Exosomes represent a promising platform in precision medicine, though further standardization and validation are required before widespread clinical use. This review offers critical insights into current technologies, therapeutic mechanisms, and future directions to unlock the full translational potential of exosomes in clinical practice.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics17101336","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]],"date-time":"2025-10-15T11:57:42Z","timestamp":1760529462000},"page":"1336","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":116,"title":["Exosome-Based Drug Delivery: A Next-Generation Platform for Cancer, Infection, Neurological and Immunological Diseases, Gene Therapy and Regenerative Medicine"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0475-8420","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dolores R.","family":"Serrano","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutics and Food Science, School of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Instituto Universitario de Farmacia Industrial, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francisco","family":"Juste","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratorios Juste, San Pablo 27, Coslada, 28820 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0846-9044","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brayan J.","family":"Anaya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutics and Food Science, School of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bianca I.","family":"Ramirez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutics and Food Science, School of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0331-0499","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sergio A.","family":"S\u00e1nchez-Guirales","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutics and Food Science, School of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John M.","family":"Quispillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutics and Food Science, School of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Escuela Superior Polit\u00e9cnica de Chimborazo, Universidad en Riobamba, Riobamba 060155, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ester M.","family":"Hernandez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutics and Food Science, School of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jesus A.","family":"Simon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutics and Food Science, School of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jose M.","family":"Trallero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutics and Food Science, School of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Celia","family":"Serrano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutics and Food Science, School of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Satyavati","family":"Rawat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Botany, Kurukshetra University, Thanesar 136119, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4791-7468","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aikaterini","family":"Lalatsa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Formulation Unit, Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, 161 Cathedral Street, Glasgow G4 0RE, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Serrano, D.R., Kara, A., Yuste, I., Luciano, F.C., Ongoren, B., Anaya, B.J., Molina, G., Diez, L., Ramirez, B.I., and Ramirez, I.O. (2023). 3D Printing Technologies in Personalized Medicine, Nanomedicines, and Biopharmaceuticals. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics15020313"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hadizadeh, N., Bagheri, D., Shamsara, M., Hamblin, M.R., Farmany, A., Xu, M., Liang, Z., Razi, F., and Hashemi, E. (2022). Extracellular vesicles biogenesis, isolation, manipulation and genetic engineering for potential in vitro and in vivo therapeutics: An overview. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2022.1019821"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Bella, M.A. (2022). Overview and Update on Extracellular Vesicles: Considerations on Exosomes and Their Application in Modern Medicine. Biology, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biology11060804"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Doyle, L.M., and Wang, M.Z. (2019). Overview of Extracellular Vesicles, Their Origin, Composition, Purpose, and Methods for Exosome Isolation and Analysis. Cells, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells8070727"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-7253-1_1","article-title":"Extracellular Vesicles: A Brief Overview and Its Role in Precision Medicine","volume":"1660","author":"Shang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70095","DOI":"10.1002\/mco2.70095","article-title":"Exosomes: A double-edged sword in cancer immunotherapy","volume":"6","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"MedComm"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, X., Lu, Y., Wu, S., Zhang, S., Li, S., and Tan, J. (2022). An Overview of Current Research on Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: A Bibliometric Analysis From 2009 to 2021. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2022.910812"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, L., Yang, Z., and Li, J. (2024). Exosomes and SARS-CoV-2 infection. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1467109"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6766","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.4c01105","article-title":"Form Equals Function: Influence of Coacervate Architecture on Drug Delivery Applications","volume":"10","author":"Lim","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41513","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.5c09726","article-title":"Coacervate-Based Delivery Systems: Bridging Fundamentals and Applications","volume":"17","author":"Souri","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-025-07125-w","article-title":"An effective strategy based on electrostatic interaction for the simultaneous sequential purification and isolation of exosomes","volume":"192","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mikrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmed.2018.01.006","article-title":"Manufacturing Exosomes: A Promising Therapeutic Platform","volume":"24","author":"Colao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, J., Sane, S., Kim, J.E., Yun, S., Kim, H.J., Jo, K.B., Wright, J.P., Khoshdoozmasouleh, N., Lee, K., and Oh, H.T. (2023). Biogenesis and delivery of extracellular vesicles: Harnessing the power of EVs for diagnostics and therapeutics. Front. Mol. Biosci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmolb.2023.1330400"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1186\/s12964-021-00730-1","article-title":"The exosome journey: From biogenesis to uptake and intracellular signalling","volume":"19","author":"Gurung","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Commun. Signal"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1038\/nrm.2017.125","article-title":"Shedding light on the cell biology of extracellular vesicles","volume":"19","author":"Raposo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jin, Y., Ma, L., Zhang, W., Yang, W., Feng, Q., and Wang, H. (2022). Extracellular signals regulate the biogenesis of extracellular vesicles. Biol. Res., 55.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40659-022-00405-2"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e202400664","DOI":"10.1002\/cmdc.202400664","article-title":"Targeting Tetraspanins at Cell Interfaces: Functional Modulation and Exosome-Based Drug Delivery for Precise Disease Treatment","volume":"20","author":"Xu","year":"2025","journal-title":"ChemMedChem"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8392509","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/8392509","article-title":"Composition, Biogenesis, and Role of Exosomes in Tumor Development","volume":"2022","author":"Moeinzadeh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Stem Cells Int."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1744","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2021.08.006","article-title":"Exosomes as mediators of intercellular crosstalk in metabolism","volume":"33","author":"Isaac","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1002\/1873-3468.14274","article-title":"The role of exosomes in intercellular and inter-organ communication of the peripheral nervous system","volume":"596","author":"Bischoff","year":"2022","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25700","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.14878","article-title":"Emerging role of exosome-mediated intercellular communication in vascular remodeling","volume":"8","author":"Su","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1038\/s41580-022-00460-3","article-title":"Challenges and directions in studying cell-cell communication by extracellular vesicles","volume":"23","author":"Carter","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hao, Q., Wu, Y., Wu, Y., Wang, P., and Vadgama, J.V. (2022). Tumor-Derived Exosomes in Tumor-Induced Immune Suppression. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23031461"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2019.02.016","article-title":"Suppression of Exosomal PD-L1 Induces Systemic Anti-tumor Immunity and Memory","volume":"177","author":"Poggio","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1186\/s12964-021-00816-w","article-title":"Extracellular vesicle PD-L1 in reshaping tumor immune microenvironment: Biological function and potential therapy strategies","volume":"20","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Commun. Signal"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-021-02138-7","article-title":"Advances in mesenchymal stem cell exosomes: A review","volume":"12","author":"Tang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-023-03287-7","article-title":"Mesenchymal stromal\/stem cell (MSC)-derived exosomes in clinical trials","volume":"14","author":"Lotfy","year":"2023","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marote, A., Teixeira, F.G., Mendes-Pinheiro, B., and Salgado, A.J. (2016). MSCs-Derived Exosomes: Cell-Secreted Nanovesicles with Regenerative Potential. Front. Pharmacol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2016.00231"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luo, S., Chen, J., Xu, F., Chen, H., Li, Y., and Li, W. (2023). Dendritic Cell-Derived Exosomes in Cancer Immunotherapy. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202306.1175.v1"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.acc.2015.12.005","article-title":"Tumor-Derived Exosomes and Their Role in Cancer Progression","volume":"74","author":"Whitesie","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Clin.Chem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, Y., and Zhang, H. (2023). Emerging role of exosomes in vascular diseases. Front. Cardiovasc. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2023.1090909"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1561","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.201300729","article-title":"Interspecies communication between plant and mouse gut host cells through edible plant derived exosome-like nanoparticles","volume":"58","author":"Mu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2017.05.003","article-title":"Bioengineering bacterial outer membrane vesicles as vaccine platform","volume":"35","author":"Gerritzen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Adv."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, J., Li, A., Hu, J., Feng, L., Liu, L., and Shen, Z. (2022). Recent developments in isolating methods for exosomes. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2022.1100892"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sidhom, K., Obi, P.O., and Saleem, A. (2020). A Review of Exosomal Isolation Methods: Is Size Exclusion Chromatography the Best Option?. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202007.0485.v2"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, Y., Wang, Y., Lu, Y., Luo, X., Huang, Y., Xie, T., Pilarsky, C., Dang, Y., and Zhang, J. (2022). Microfluidic Technology for the Isolation and Analysis of Exosomes. Micromachines, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi13101571"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2103222","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202103222","article-title":"Exosome Processing and Characterization Approaches for Research and Technology Development","volume":"9","author":"Lai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2125","DOI":"10.1007\/s10616-016-9952-7","article-title":"Evaluation of electroporation-induced adverse effects on adipose-derived stem cell exosomes","volume":"68","author":"Johnsen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cytotechnology"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1038\/nature15756","article-title":"Tumour exosome integrins determine organotropic metastasis","volume":"527","author":"Hoshino","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1038\/s41565-023-01585-y","article-title":"Cellular uptake and in vivo distribution of mesenchymal-stem-cell-derived extracellular vesicles are protein corona dependent","volume":"19","author":"Faruqu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yi, Y.W., Lee, J.H., Kim, S.Y., Pack, C.G., Ha, D.H., Park, S.R., Youn, J., and Cho, B.S. (2020). Advances in Analysis of Biodistribution of Exosomes by Molecular Imaging. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21020665"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"dmm050074","DOI":"10.1242\/dmm.050074","article-title":"Studying exogenous extracellular vesicle biodistribution by in vivo fluorescence microscopy","volume":"16","author":"Lau","year":"2023","journal-title":"Dis. Model. Mech."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Majka, M., Durak-Kozica, M., Kaminska, A., Opalinska, A., Szcech, M., and Stepien, E. (2017). The effects of subdiffusion on the NTA size measurements of extracellular vesicles in biological samples. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Woud, W.W., van der Pol, E., Mul, E., Hoogduijn, M.J., Baan, C.C., Boer, K., and Merino, A. (2022). An imaging flow cytometry-based methodology for the analysis of single extracellular vesicles in unprocessed human plasma. Commun. Biol., 5.","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-022-03569-5"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gurunathan, S., Kang, M.H., Jeyaraj, M., Qasim, M., and Kim, J.H. (2019). Review of the Isolation, Characterization, Biological Function, and Multifarious Therapeutic Approaches of Exosomes. Cells, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells8040307"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2016.02.006","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles for drug delivery","volume":"106","author":"Vader","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31027","DOI":"10.3402\/jev.v5.31027","article-title":"A platform for actively loading cargo RNA to elucidate limiting steps in EV-mediated delivery","volume":"5","author":"Hung","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.1807","article-title":"Delivery of siRNA to the mouse brain by systemic injection of targeted exosomes","volume":"29","author":"Seow","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1305","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-03733-8","article-title":"Designer exosomes produced by implanted cells intracerebrally deliver therapeutic cargo for Parkinson\u2019s disease treatment","volume":"9","author":"Kojima","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2014.07.042","article-title":"Paclitaxel is incorporated by mesenchymal stromal cells and released in exosomes that inhibit in vitro tumor growth: A new approach for drug delivery","volume":"192","author":"Pascucci","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Control Release"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e130","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gks463","article-title":"Plasma exosomes can deliver exogenous short interfering RNA to monocytes and lymphocytes","volume":"40","author":"Wahlgren","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2013.08.014","article-title":"Electroporation-induced siRNA precipitation obscures the efficiency of siRNA loading into extracellular vesicles","volume":"172","author":"Kooijmans","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Control Release"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2015.03.033","article-title":"Exosomes as drug delivery vehicles for Parkinson\u2019s disease therapy","volume":"207","author":"Haney","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Control Release"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2013.11.083","article-title":"A doxorubicin delivery platform using engineered natural membrane vesicle exosomes for targeted tumor therapy","volume":"35","author":"Tian","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1606","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2010.105","article-title":"A novel nanoparticle drug delivery system: The anti-inflammatory activity of curcumin is enhanced when encapsulated in exosomes","volume":"18","author":"Sun","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1007\/s13238-018-0529-4","article-title":"Effect of pH, temperature and freezing-thawing on quantity changes and cellular uptake of exosomes","volume":"10","author":"Cheng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Protein Cell"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1186\/s12964-025-02268-y","article-title":"Functionalized exosomes for targeted therapy in cancer and regenerative medicine: Genetic, chemical, and physical modifications","volume":"23","author":"Gabaran","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Commun. Signal"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johnson, V., Vasu, S., Kumar, U.S., and Kumar, M. (2023). Surface-Engineered Extracellular Vesicles in Cancer Immunotherapy. Cancers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers15102838"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/s12943-024-02215-4","article-title":"Emerging role of exosomes in cancer therapy: Progress and challenges","volume":"24","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mol. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e6800","DOI":"10.1002\/cam4.6800","article-title":"RGD peptide in cancer targeting: Benefits, challenges, solutions, and possible integrin-RGD interactions","volume":"13","author":"Javid","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cancer Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wei, Z., Zhou, Y., Wang, R., Wang, J., and Chen, Z. (2022). Aptamers as Smart Ligands for Targeted Drug Delivery in Cancer Therapy. Pharmaceutics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics14122561"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Q., Li, D., Pan, X., and Liang, Y. (2023). Targeted therapy using engineered extracellular vesicles: Principles and strategies for membrane modification. J. Nanobiotechnol., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-023-02081-0"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1007\/s13770-021-00361-0","article-title":"Biodistribution of Exosomes and Engineering Strategies for Targeted Delivery of Therapeutic Exosomes","volume":"18","author":"Choi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Tissue Eng. Regen. Med."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jare.2021.01.001","article-title":"Camouflage strategies for therapeutic exosomes evasion from phagocytosis","volume":"31","author":"Parada","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Adv. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5803","DOI":"10.1039\/D4NA00501E","article-title":"A comprehensive review of challenges and advances in exosome-based drug delivery systems","volume":"6","author":"Palakurthi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nanoscale Adv."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, L., Zhang, D., Pang, L., and Liu, S. (2024). Extracellular vesicles for cancer therapy: Potential, progress, and clinical challenges. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2024.1476737"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fmre.2024.03.025","article-title":"Engineering exosomes and exosome-like nanovesicles for improving tissue targeting and retention","volume":"5","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Fundam. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1186\/s12935-025-03689-y","article-title":"Doxorubicin loaded exosomes inhibit cancer-associated fibroblasts growth: In vitro and in vivo study","volume":"25","author":"Attar","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cancer Cell Int."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216093","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canlet.2023.216093","article-title":"Tumor-targeted exosomes for delivery of anticancer drugs","volume":"558","author":"Raguraman","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cancer Lett."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10711","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S479306","article-title":"Key Magnetized Exosomes for Effective Targeted Delivery of Doxorubicin Against Breast Cancer Cell Types in Mice Model","volume":"19","author":"Xu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, W., Jiang, X., Bao, J., Wang, Y., Liu, H., and Tang, L. (2018). Exosomes in Pathogen Infections: A Bridge to Deliver Molecules and Link Functions. Front. Immunol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.00090"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peng, Y., Yang, Y., Li, Y., Shi, T., Luan, Y., and Yin, C. (2023). Exosome and virus infection. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1154217"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI81132","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles and infectious diseases: New complexity to an old story","volume":"126","author":"Schorey","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-024-02301-5","article-title":"A state-of-the-art review of the recent advances in exosome isolation and detection methods in viral infection","volume":"21","author":"Gorgzadeh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e170124225730","DOI":"10.2174\/0118715265264388231128045954","article-title":"Exosomes: Friends or Foes in Microbial Infections?","volume":"24","author":"Teymouri","year":"2024","journal-title":"Infect. Disord. Drug Targets"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.4155\/tde.13.5","article-title":"Peptide pills for brain diseases? Reality and future perspectives","volume":"4","author":"Lalatsa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ther. Deliv."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, L., Xiong, Y., Chopp, M., and Zhang, Y. (2019). Engineered exosomes enriched with select microRNAs amplify their therapeutic efficacy for traumatic brain injury and stroke. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 18.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2024.1376601"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fatima, S., Qaiser, A., Andleeb, S., Hashmi, A.H., and Manzoor, S. (2023). Navigating the brain: The role of exosomal shuttles in precision therapeutics. Front. Neurol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2023.1324216"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sanadgol, N., Abedi, M., Hashemzaei, M., Kamran, Z., Khalseh, R., Beyer, C., and Voelz, C. (2025). Exosomes as nanocarriers for brain-targeted delivery of therapeutic nucleic acids: Advances and challenges. J. Nanobiotechnol., 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-025-03528-2"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdelsalam, M., Ahmed, M., Osaid, Z., Hamoudi, R., and Harati, R. (2023). Insights into Exosome Transport through the Blood\u2013Brain Barrier and the Potential Therapeutical Applications in Brain Diseases. Pharmaceuticals, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph16040571"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149590","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2025.149590","article-title":"Advancing Alzheimer\u2019s disease therapy through engineered exosomal Macromolecules","volume":"1855","author":"Jain","year":"2025","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3921","DOI":"10.2147\/JIR.S466821","article-title":"Unveiling the Complex Role of Exosomes in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"17","author":"Sun","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Inflamm. Res."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zubair, M., Abouelnzar, F.A., Iqbal, M.A., Pan, J., Zheng, X., Chen, T., Shen, W., Yin, J., Yongmin, Y., and Lui, P. (2025). Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes as a plausible immunomodulatory therapeutic tool for inflammatory diseases. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2025.1563427"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barbetta, C., Bonomi, F., Lepri, G., Furst, D.E., Randone, S.B., and Guiducci, S. (2025). Mesenchymal Stem-Cell-Derived Exosomes and MicroRNAs: Advancing Cell-Free Therapy in Systemic Sclerosis. Cells, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells14131018"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103861","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2025.103861","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cell in immunomodulation of dendritic cells: Implications for inflammatory bowel disease therapy","volume":"24","author":"Song","year":"2025","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mignini, I., Piccirilli, G., Termite, F., Paratore, M., Esposto, G., Laterza, L., Scaldaferri, F., Ainora, M.E., Gasbarrini, A., and Zocco, M.A. (2023). Extracellular Vesicles: Novel Potential Therapeutic Agents in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases. Cells, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells13010090"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabp9435","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abp9435","article-title":"Exosome-mediated delivery of Cas9 ribonucleoprotein complexes for tissue-specific gene therapy of liver diseases","volume":"8","author":"Wan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1334","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-14957-y","article-title":"Extracellular nanovesicles for packaging of CRISPR-Cas9 protein and sgRNA to induce therapeutic exon skipping","volume":"11","author":"Gee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gene.2025.149296","article-title":"Exosomes-mediated CRISPR\/Cas delivery: A cutting-edge frontier in cancer gene therapy","volume":"944","author":"Dhar","year":"2025","journal-title":"Gene"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scr.2009.12.003","article-title":"Exosome secreted by MSC reduces myocardial ischemia\/reperfusion injury","volume":"4","author":"Lai","year":"2010","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1635","DOI":"10.1089\/scd.2014.0316","article-title":"Mesenchymal Stem Cell Exosomes Induce Proliferation and Migration of Normal and Chronic Wound Fibroblasts, and Enhance Angiogenesis In Vitro","volume":"24","author":"Shabbir","year":"2015","journal-title":"Stem Cells Dev."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2979124","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/2979124","article-title":"Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes Modulate Chondrocyte Glutamine Metabolism to Alleviate Osteoarthritis Progression","volume":"2021","author":"Jiang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mediat. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1177\/1535370219895491","article-title":"Neural stem cell-derived exosomes facilitate spinal cord functional recovery after injury by promoting angiogenesis","volume":"245","author":"Zhong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1111\/phpp.12910","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes and skin photoaging: From basic research to practical application","volume":"39","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Photodermatol. Photoimmunol. Photomed."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tienda-Vazquez, M.A., Hanel, J.M., Marquez-Arteaga, E.M., Salgado-Alvarez, A.P., Scheckhuber, C.Q., Alanis-Gomez, J.R., Espinoza-Silva, J.I., Ramos-Kuri, M., Hernandez-Rosas, F., and Melchor-Martinez, E.M. (2023). Exosomes: A Promising Strategy for Repair, Regeneration and Treatment of Skin Disorders. Cells, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12121625"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13586","DOI":"10.1111\/cpr.13586","article-title":"Umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cell secretome promotes skin regeneration and rejuvenation: From mechanism to therapeutics","volume":"57","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Prolif."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, H., Jang, H., Cho, H., Choi, J., Hwang, K.Y., Choi, Y., Kim, S.H., and Yang, Y. (2021). Recent Advances in Exosome-Based Drug Delivery for Cancer Therapy. Cancers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers13174435"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"836","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-024-01201-6","article-title":"Recent advances in extracellular vesicles for therapeutic cargo delivery","volume":"56","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2385","DOI":"10.1007\/s13346-021-01087-1","article-title":"Exosomal targeting and its potential clinical application","volume":"12","author":"He","year":"2022","journal-title":"Drug Deliv. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zeng, H., Guo, S., Ren, X., Wu, Z., Liu, S., and Yao, X. (2023). Current Strategies for Exosome Cargo Loading and Targeting Delivery. Cells, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12101416"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1007\/s13346-022-01225-3","article-title":"The exosome: A review of current therapeutic roles and capabilities in human reproduction","volume":"13","author":"Dimik","year":"2023","journal-title":"Drug Deliv. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tranon.2024.102121","article-title":"A comprehensive review on recent advances in exosome isolation and characterization: Toward clinical applications","volume":"50","author":"Dilsiz","year":"2024","journal-title":"Transl. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1186\/s12964-022-00959-4","article-title":"A review on exosomes application in clinical trials: Perspective, questions, and challenges","volume":"20","author":"Rezaie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Commun. Signal"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, J., Li, P., Zhang, T., Xu, Z., Huang, X., Wang, R., and Du, L. (2021). Review on Strategies and Technologies for Exosome Isolation and Purification. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2021.811971"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2021.04.012","article-title":"A call for the standardised reporting of factors affecting the exogenous loading of extracellular vesicles with therapeutic cargos","volume":"173","author":"Vader","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.18609\/cgti.2017.066","article-title":"Considerations for the bioprocessing, manufacture and translation of extracellular vesicles for therapeutic applications","volume":"3","author":"Davies","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Gene Ther. Insights"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Verma, N., and Arora, S. (2025). Navigating the Global Regulatory Landscape for Exosome-Based Therapeutics: Challenges, Strategies, and Future Directions. Pharmaceutics, 17.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202506.2532.v1"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thakur, A., and Rai, D. (2024). Global requirements for manufacturing and validation of clinical grade extracellular vesicles. J. Liq. Biopsy, 6.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jlb.2024.100278"},{"key":"ref_109","unstructured":"(2025, August 04). Aegle Therapeutics. Available online: https:\/\/aegletherapeutics.com\/ev-therapy\/."},{"key":"ref_110","unstructured":"(2025, August 04). Capricor Tehrapeutics. Available online: https:\/\/www.capricor.com\/our-science."},{"key":"ref_111","unstructured":"(2025, August 04). Evox Therapeutics. Available online: https:\/\/www.evoxtherapeutics.com\/pipeline\/."},{"key":"ref_112","unstructured":"(2025, August 04). Aruna Bio. Available online: https:\/\/www.arunabio.com\/pipeline."},{"key":"ref_113","unstructured":"(2025, August 04). Everzom. Available online: https:\/\/everzom.com\/innovation-platform\/mother-cell-source\/."},{"key":"ref_114","unstructured":"(2025, August 04). Aposcience. Available online: https:\/\/www.aposcience.at\/company\/."},{"key":"ref_115","unstructured":"(2025, August 04). Codiak Bioscience. Available online: https:\/\/www.biospace.com\/employer\/1935177\/codiak-biosciences."},{"key":"ref_116","unstructured":"(2025, August 04). Codiak Bioscience Programme. Available online: https:\/\/www.biospace.com\/codiak-presents-preclinical-data-on-exoaso-stat6-and-exoaso-c-ebp%CE%B2-programs-at-the-society-for-immunotherapy-of-cancer-sitc-2022-annual-meeting."},{"key":"ref_117","unstructured":"(2025, August 04). Exoexpert. Available online: https:\/\/exoxpert.com\/exoxpert-an-exosome-cdmo-launched-by-exo-biologics\/?utm_source=chatgpt.com."},{"key":"ref_118","unstructured":"(2025, August 04). Exoexpert MSC-Derived Extracellular Vesicles. Available online: https:\/\/exoxpert.com\/research-paper-evs-from-ms-umbilical-cord-cells-exert-protection-against-oxidative-stress-and-fibrosis-in-a-rat-model-of-bpd\/?utm_source=chatgpt.com."},{"key":"ref_119","unstructured":"(2025, August 04). EXO Biologics and ExoXpert Reach Two Critical Milestones that Advance Exosomes. Available online: https:\/\/www.biopharminternational.com\/view\/exo-biologics-exoxpert-reach-two-critical-milestones-advance-exosomes?utm_source=chatgpt.com."},{"key":"ref_120","unstructured":"Kinera Labs (2025, August 04). Vive. Available online: https:\/\/kimeravive.com\/."},{"key":"ref_121","unstructured":"(2025, August 04). Exosomas Exocobio. Available online: https:\/\/dermatologiaestoril.cl\/products\/exosomas-exocobio."},{"key":"ref_122","unstructured":"(2025, August 04). Rion. Available online: https:\/\/riontx.com\/pipeline\/."},{"key":"ref_123","unstructured":"(2025, August 04). SCTBio. Available online: https:\/\/www.sctbio.com\/."},{"key":"ref_124","unstructured":"(2025, August 04). Lonza. Available online: https:\/\/www.lonza.com\/specialized-modalities\/cell-and-gene\/exosomes."},{"key":"ref_125","unstructured":"(2025, August 04). RoosterBIo. Available online: https:\/\/www.roosterbio.com\/products\/quickship-hmsc-exosomes-extracellular-vesicles-evs\/?gad_source=1&gad_campaignid=16975550564&gbraid=0AAAAABLy-paHChATjcqfBX1vXWpyuf78U&gclid=Cj0KCQjwtMHEBhC-ARIsABua5iQtpqJKfz0aM_qbgbzGmQCAGTkv7NZTL5VNfURxu2h0xfroHxGZMDEaAhZ2EALw_wcB."},{"key":"ref_126","unstructured":"(2025, October 04). Clinical Trials Using Exosomes, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1002\/hcs2.70028","article-title":"Exploring Regulatory Frameworks for Exosome Therapy: Insights and Perspectives","volume":"4","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Health Care Sci."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13904","DOI":"10.1111\/cts.13904","article-title":"Regulation of exosomes as biologic medicines: Regulatory challenges faced in exosome development and manufacturing processes","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_129","unstructured":"(2025, August 04). Unravelling the Regulatory Riddle for Exosome-Based Therapies. Available online: https:\/\/www.biopharma-excellence.com\/2020-7-3-unravelling-the-regulatory-riddle-for-exosome-based-therapies\/?utm_source=chatgpt.com."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70145","DOI":"10.1002\/jev2.70145","article-title":"GMP-Compliant Process for the Manufacturing of an Extracellular Vesicles-Enriched Secretome Product Derived From Cardiovascular Progenitor Cells Suitable for a Phase I Clinical Trial","volume":"14","author":"Humbert","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles"},{"key":"ref_131","unstructured":"(2025, August 04). Rion Aesthetics. Available online: https:\/\/www.rionaesthetics.com\/."},{"key":"ref_132","unstructured":"(2025, August 04). Benev. Available online: https:\/\/www.benev.com\/."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y.J., Wu, J.Y., Liu, J., Xu, W., Qiu, X., Huang, S., Hu, X.B., and Xiang, D.X. (2021). Artificial exosomes for translational nanomedicine. J. Nanobiotechnol., 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-021-00986-2"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102040","DOI":"10.1016\/j.omtn.2023.102040","article-title":"CRISPR-Cas9 delivery strategies with engineered extracellular vesicles","volume":"34","author":"Lu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. Ther. Nucleic Acids"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Serrano, D.R., Luciano, F.C., Anaya, B.J., Ongoren, B., Kara, A., Molina, G., Ramirez, B.I., Sanchez-Guirales, S.A., Simon, J.A., and Tomietto, G. (2024). Artificial Intelligence (AI) Applications in Drug Discovery and Drug Delivery: Revolutionizing Personalized Medicine. Pharmaceutics, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics16101328"},{"key":"ref_136","first-page":"79","article-title":"Role of CD9 Sensing, AI, and Exosomes in Cellular Communication of Cancer","volume":"10","author":"Baghban","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Stem Cell Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schwarz, G., Ren, X., Xie, W., Guo, H., Jiang, Y., and Zhang, J. (2025). Engineered exosomes: A promising drug delivery platform with therapeutic potential. Front. Mol. Biosci., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmolb.2025.1583992"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-024-01209-y","article-title":"Regulation of cargo selection in exosome biogenesis and its biomedical applications in cancer","volume":"56","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Med."}],"container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/17\/10\/1336\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]],"date-time":"2025-10-15T12:02:33Z","timestamp":1760529753000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/17\/10\/1336"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]]},"references-count":138,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]}},"alternative-id":["pharmaceutics17101336"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pharmaceutics17101336","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4923"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4923","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]]}}}