{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T21:23:09Z","timestamp":1791408189123,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":97,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]],"date-time":"2025-11-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762819200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Sublingual vaccination offers a non-invasive route for inducing both systemic and mucosal immunity, yet the formulation properties that govern its success remain poorly defined. This study investigated the relationships among key formulation parameters for sublingual vaccines, such as viscosity, mucoadhesion, and mucosal residence, to understand their impact on in vivo immune responses in the sublingual delivery context. Methods: Ovalbumin (OVA)-based vaccine formulations containing cholera toxin B (CTB) adjuvant and mucoadhesive excipients such as hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) or methylglycol chitosan (MGC), were evaluated for: (1) their respective rheological properties\u2014characterized by viscosity and mucoadhesion parameters, as well as (2) in situ mucosal retention (assessed using Cy7-labeled formulations tracked by IVIS in vivo imaging system) and (3) in vivo immunogenicity via systemic (IgG) and mucosal (IgA) responses measured by ELISA, following sublingual administration to mice. Correlations between rheology, in situ\/ex situ mucosal residence, and in vivo immune outcomes were determined. Results: Sublingual vaccine formulations containing HPMC exhibited the highest viscosity, mucoadhesion, and mucosal retention profiles, but paradoxically elicited the weakest systemic and mucosal antibody responses. In contrast, chitosan-based formulations enhanced immune responses even at reduced antigen and adjuvant doses, likely due to its permeation-enhancing and adjuvant effects. Correlation analyses revealed that while formulation viscosity and mucoadhesive strength were positively associated with mucosal retention, both rheological and retentive properties showed a significant inverse relationship with immunogenicity in the context of sublingual vaccine delivery. Conclusions: While viscosity and mucoadhesion are essential for in situ retention of sublingual vaccines, prolonged residence driven by excipient\u2019s excessive rheological strength was found to reduce vaccine immunogenicity\u2014likely due to restricted antigen release and mucosal uptake. Accordingly, HPMC appears suboptimal as a sublingual vaccine excipient, while chitosan shows promise for sublingual delivery as a permeation-enhancing adjuvant. These findings may shift the design paradigm for sublingual vaccine formulations, highlighting the need to balance mucosal retention with efficient antigen absorption for maximizing immune responses.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics17111456","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]],"date-time":"2025-11-11T12:44:55Z","timestamp":1762865095000},"page":"1456","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Correlations Between Rheology, In Situ Mucosal Retention and In Vivo Immunogenicity Reveal the Potential and Limitations of Mucoadhesive Excipients for Sublingual Vaccine Delivery"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2180-0480","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamed Deifallah","family":"Yousif","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, UK"},{"name":"Vaccines Division, Scientific Research & Innovation Group, MHRA, Potters Bar EN6 3QG, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ilona","family":"Kubajewska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fatme","family":"Mawas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vaccines Division, Scientific Research & Innovation Group, MHRA, Potters Bar EN6 3QG, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0834-7757","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sudaxshina","family":"Murdan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2021.03.017","article-title":"Sublingual vaccination and delivery systems","volume":"332","author":"Paris","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. 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