{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T11:21:41Z","timestamp":1789039301306,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":85,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]],"date-time":"2026-01-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769644800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) is essential for ensuring safe, effective, and individualized anti-infective therapy, particularly in patients with complex clinical needs. Variability in pharmacokinetics, challenges in drug administration, and high-dose regimens can compromise adherence and increase the risk of therapeutic failure or resistance. Swallowing difficulties, a common barrier to oral therapy, often necessitate alternative administration routes or customized formulations. However, interventions such as pharmaceutical compounding or manipulation of solid dosage forms may significantly alter drug bioavailability and pharmacokinetic profiles, making TDM indispensable for guiding dose adjustments and maintaining therapeutic targets. Objectives: This review not only emphasizes the clinical relevance of TDM but also addresses practical strategies that enable therapy when standard formulations are unsuitable or unavailable, while minimizing risks that could compromise treatment efficacy and safety. Special focus is given to anti-infective agents, such as antibiotics, antivirals, and antifungals, illustrating how TDM, combined with tailored pharmaceutical approaches, supports precision dosing and informed decision-making. Conclusions: Through clinical examples and pharmacokinetic considerations, we demonstrated that TDM is a cornerstone of personalized medicine, improving outcomes, and reducing adverse effects in anti-infective treatment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics18020176","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]],"date-time":"2026-01-29T14:52:36Z","timestamp":1769698356000},"page":"176","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["The Potential Role of Therapeutic Drug Monitoring for Safe and Effective Anti-Infective Therapy with Manipulated Dosage Forms"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Sara","family":"Baldelli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Pharmacology Unit, Clinical Chemistry Laboratory, ASST Spedali Civili di Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5796-671X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabio","family":"Borgonovo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases, Luigi Sacco Hospital, University of Milan, 20157 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1263-5463","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anastasia","family":"Foppoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GazzaLab, Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, Sezione di Tecnologia e Legislazione Farmaceutiche \u201cMaria Edvige Sangalli\u201d, 20133 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"ADD srl, Advanced Drug Delivery, via Paleocapa 6, 20121 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6587-4794","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Gori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases, Luigi Sacco Hospital, University of Milan, 20157 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, University of Milan, 20157 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1512-6530","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dario","family":"Cattaneo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Pieve Emanuele, 20072 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Clinical Analysis Laboratory, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3886-4862","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matteo","family":"Cerea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GazzaLab, Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, Sezione di Tecnologia e Legislazione Farmaceutiche \u201cMaria Edvige Sangalli\u201d, 20133 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"ADD srl, Advanced Drug Delivery, via Paleocapa 6, 20121 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"68","article-title":"Environmental Factors Influencing the Development and Spread of Antibiotic Resistance","volume":"42","author":"Kristiansson","year":"2018","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)02724-0","article-title":"Global Burden of Bacterial Antimicrobial Resistance in 2019: A Systematic Analysis","volume":"399","author":"Murray","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruvalcaba-G\u00f3mez, J.M., Villagr\u00e1n, Z., Valdez-Alarc\u00f3n, J.J., Mart\u00ednez-N\u00fa\u00f1ez, M., Gomez-God\u00ednez, L.J., Ruesga-Guti\u00e9rrez, E., Anaya-Esparza, L.M., Arteaga-Garibay, R.I., and Villarruel-L\u00f3pez, A. (2022). Non-Antibiotics Strategies to Control Salmonella Infection in Poultry. Animals, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12010102"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Kraker, M.E.A., Davey, P.G., and Grundmann, H. (2011). Mortality and Hospital Stay Associated with Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus and Escherichia Coli Bacteremia: Estimating the Burden of Antibiotic Resistance in Europe. PLoS Med., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1001104"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"686","article-title":"Antibiotic-Resistant Infections in Primary Care Are Symptomatic for Longer and Increase Workload: Outcomes for Patients with E. Coli UTIs","volume":"56","author":"Butler","year":"2006","journal-title":"Br. J. Gen. Pract."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Ashiru-Oredope, D., Cunningham, N., Casale, E., Muller-Pebody, B., Hope, R., Brown, C.S., and Hopkins, S. (2021). English Surveillance Programme for Antimicrobial Utilisation and Resistance (ESPAUR)."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.18773\/austprescr.2020.008","article-title":"Oral or Intravenous Antibiotics?","volume":"43","author":"McCarthy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aust. Prescr."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1710926","article-title":"Oral versus Intravenous Antibiotics for Bone and Joint Infection","volume":"380","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.4103\/0976-500X.130042","article-title":"Switch over from Intravenous to Oral Therapy: A Concise Overview","volume":"5","author":"Cyriac","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Kuper, K.M. (2018). Competence Assessment Tools for Health-System Pharmacies, Americal Society of Heatlh System Pharmacists."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2344","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkaf209","article-title":"Efficacy and Safety of Earlier Switching to an Oral Antibiotic Therapy for the Treatment of Gram-Positive Bloodstream Infections: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"80","author":"Tan","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1310\/hpj4411-959","article-title":"Smoothing the Path for Intravenous (IV) to Oral (PO) Conversion: Where Have We Come in 11 Years?","volume":"44","author":"Banko","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hosp. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.12688\/wellcomeopenres.15314.4","article-title":"Cost-Effectiveness of Oral versus Intravenous Antibiotics (OVIVA) in Patients with Bone and Joint Infection: Evidence from a Non-Inferiority Trial","volume":"4","author":"McMeekin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Wellcome Open Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1101","DOI":"10.2146\/ajhp090357","article-title":"Analysis of Computer Alerts Suggesting Oral Medication Use during Computerized Order Entry of i.v. Medications","volume":"67","author":"Galanter","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Health-Syst. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1007\/s00455-022-10465-x","article-title":"Prevalence of Oropharyngeal Dysphagia in Adults in Different Healthcare Settings: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses","volume":"38","author":"Rivelsrud","year":"2023","journal-title":"Dysphagia"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.2217\/pmt-2017-0030","article-title":"The Comparative Pharmacokinetics of Physical Manipulation by Crushing of Xtampza\u00ae ER Compared with OxyContin\u00ae","volume":"7","author":"Brennan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pain Manag."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1177\/0897190012442716","article-title":"Tablet Splitting and Weight Uniformity of Half-Tablets of 4 Medications in Pharmacy Practice","volume":"25","author":"Tahaineh","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Pract."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1065","DOI":"10.1007\/s00228-006-0202-3","article-title":"The Frequency of Inappropriate Tablet Splitting in Primary Care","volume":"62","author":"Quinzler","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"453","article-title":"Effects of a Tablet-Splitting Program in Patients Taking HMG-CoA Reductase Inhibitors: Analysis of Clinical Effects, Patient Satisfaction, Compliance, and Cost Avoidance","volume":"8","author":"Gee","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Manag. Care Pharm."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1345\/aph.1A233","article-title":"Effect of Tablet Splitting on Serum Cholesterol Concentrations","volume":"36","author":"Duncan","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ann. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.15406\/ppij.2022.10.00359","article-title":"The Pharmacological Perspective on Tablet Splitting or Crushing","volume":"10","author":"Faikoglu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pharm. Pharmacol. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkac375","article-title":"Relative Bioavailability of Crushed Tebipenem Administered through a Nasogastric Tube with and without Enteral Feeding","volume":"78","author":"Fouad","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1177\/106002809202600409","article-title":"In Vitro Delivery of Crushed Ciprofloxacin through a Feeding Tube","volume":"26","author":"Druckenbrod","year":"1992","journal-title":"Ann. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1002\/phar.1835","article-title":"A HAART-Breaking Review of Alternative Antiretroviral Administration: Practical Considerations with Crushing and Enteral Tube Scenarios","volume":"36","author":"Huesgen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pharmacotherapy"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2430","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dky191","article-title":"Crushing of Dolutegravir Fixed-Dose Combination Tablets Increases Dolutegravir Exposure","volume":"73","author":"Bollen","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1002\/cpdd.632","article-title":"Impact of Splitting or Crushing on the Relative Bioavailability of the Darunavir\/Cobicistat\/Emtricitabine\/Tenofovir Alafenamide Single-Tablet Regimen","volume":"8","author":"Brown","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacol. Drug Dev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkac369","article-title":"Bioavailability of Dissolved and Crushed Single Tablets of Bictegravir, Emtricitabine, Tenofovir Alafenamide in Healthy Adults: The SOLUBIC Randomized Crossover Study","volume":"78","author":"Hocqueloux","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1111\/bcp.15994","article-title":"Enteral Administration of Crushed Rilpivirine in a Patient with HIV: A Case Report","volume":"90","author":"Ragonnet","year":"2024","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1177\/0956462418797847","article-title":"Crushed Dolutegravir\/Abacavir\/Lamivudine given via Nasogastric Tube in Gastric Outlet Obstruction Caused by Cancer Resulted in Rapid Viral Load Suppression","volume":"30","author":"Chrdle","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. STD AIDS"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1724","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xphs.2018.02.015","article-title":"A Phase 1 Study to Evaluate the Effect of Crushing, Cutting Into Half, or Grinding of Glecaprevir\/Pibrentasvir Tablets on Exposures in Healthy Subjects","volume":"107","author":"Oberoi","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105934","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2020.105934","article-title":"Crushed Application of Sofosbuvir and Velpatasvir in a Patient with Swallowing Disorder","volume":"55","author":"Samson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1093\/ajhp\/zxz326","article-title":"Effectiveness of Crushed Sofosbuvir-Velpatasvir in a Patient with Dysphagia","volume":"77","author":"Mogul","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Health-Syst. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2661","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkaa230","article-title":"Pharmacokinetic Similarity Demonstrated after Crushing of the Elbasvir\/Grazoprevir Fixed-Dose Combination Tablet for HCV Infection","volume":"75","author":"Pijnenburg","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1093\/ajhp\/zxaa328","article-title":"Treatment of Chronic Hepatitis C Virus Infection with Crushed Ledipasvir\/Sofosbuvir Administered through a Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastrostomy Tube in a Patient with HIV Coinfection","volume":"78","author":"Huffman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Health-Syst. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01263-06","article-title":"Comparative Pharmacokinetics of Voriconazole Administered Orally as Either Crushed or Whole Tablets","volume":"51","author":"Zaas","year":"2007","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1177\/0897190013515925","article-title":"Comparison of Oral Vancomycin Capsule and Solution for Treatment of Initial Episode of Severe Clostridium Difficile Infection","volume":"28","author":"Bass","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Pract."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"526","article-title":"To Crush or Not to Crush, That Is the Question","volume":"38","author":"Ayachi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3","DOI":"10.1136\/ejhpharm-2021-002928","article-title":"\u201cTo Crush or Not to Crush, That Is the Question!\u201d An Algorithm Can Help with the Proper Administration of Solid Oral Medicines in Patients Where the Oral Route Is Compromised","volume":"30","author":"Sagaria","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Hosp. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2012.04.022","article-title":"Swallowing Dysfunction and Dysphagia Is an Unrecognized Challenge for Oral Drug Therapy","volume":"430","author":"Stegemann","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2014.04.069","article-title":"Patient-Centred, Administration Friendly Medicines for Children\u2014An Evaluation of Children\u2019s Preferences and How They Impact Medication Adherence","volume":"469","author":"Bryson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"1334","article-title":"Drug Prescription for Children: Results of a Study on the Practical Effect of the EU Regulation No. 1901\/2006\u2014\u201cBetter Medicines for Children\u201d since Its Coming into Effect in January 2007","volume":"72","author":"Hermes","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pharm. Ind."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sangnim, T., Sriamornsak, P., Singh, I., and Huanbutta, K. (2021). Swallowing Gel for Patients with Dysphagia: A Novel Application of Chitosan. Gels, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels7030108"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.18773\/austprescr.2022.067","article-title":"Administration of Medicines to Children: A Practical Guide","volume":"45","author":"Smith","year":"2022","journal-title":"Aust. Prescr."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpb.2011.02.005","article-title":"Orally Disintegrating Mini-Tablets (ODMTs)\u2014A Novel Solid Oral Dosage Form for Paediatric Use","volume":"78","author":"Stoltenberg","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1136\/archdischild-2011-300958","article-title":"Acceptance of Uncoated Mini-Tablets in Young Children: Results from a Prospective Exploratory Cross-over Study","volume":"97","author":"Spomer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1007\/s12247-018-9323-3","article-title":"Subdivision of Tablets Containing Modified Delivery Technology: The Case of Orally Disintegrating Tablets","volume":"13","author":"Temer","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Innov."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1016\/j.revmed.2012.05.014","article-title":"L\u2019\u00e9crasement Des M\u00e9dicaments En G\u00e9riatrie: Une Pratique \u00ab artisanale \u00bb Avec de Fr\u00e9quentes Erreurs Qui N\u00e9cessitait Des Recommandations","volume":"33","author":"Caussin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Interne"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1012050931018","article-title":"Patients\u2019 Evaluation of Shape, Size and Colour of Solid Dosage Forms","volume":"23","author":"Overgaard","year":"2001","journal-title":"Pharm. World Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.powtec.2021.01.014","article-title":"Determination of Tensile Strength of Shaped Tablets","volume":"383","author":"Yohannes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Powder Technol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1728","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2013.07.014","article-title":"Favorable Acceptance of Mini-Tablets Compared with Syrup: A Randomized Controlled Trial in Infants and Preschool Children","volume":"163","author":"Klingmann","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2015.07.010","article-title":"Acceptability of Uncoated Mini-Tablets in Neonates\u2014A Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"167","author":"Klingmann","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1331\/1544-3191.44.5.583.Brotherman","article-title":"Comparison of Ease of Swallowing of Dietary Supplement Products for Age-Related Eye Disease","volume":"44","author":"Brotherman","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Am. Pharm. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1552-4604.1986.tb02922.x","article-title":"The Effect of Size and Shape of Tablets on Their Esophageal Transit","volume":"26","author":"Channer","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.7748\/ns2009.03.23.29.62.c6928","article-title":"Administering Medication to Adult Patients with Dysphagia","volume":"23","author":"Kelly","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nurs. Stand."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrc.2016.09.014","article-title":"Drug-Drug Interactions in the Intensive Care Unit: Do They Really Matter?","volume":"38","author":"Vanham","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(23)02465-0","article-title":"The Effect of Computerised Decision Support Alerts Tailored to Intensive Care on the Administration of High-Risk Drug Combinations, and Their Monitoring: A Cluster Randomised Stepped-Wedge Trial","volume":"403","author":"Bakker","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102819","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jddst.2021.102819","article-title":"Enhanced Permeability and Oral Absorption of Panax Notoginseng Saponins by Borneol","volume":"66","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines & HealthCare (EDQM) (2024). Ph.Eur. Glossary. European Pharmacopoeia, EDQM Council of Europe."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"European Medicines Agency (2014). Guideline on Pharmaceutical Development of Medicines for Paediatric Use Table of Contents. Ema, 44, 1\u201324. Available online: https:\/\/www.ema.europa.eu\/en\/documents\/scientific-guideline\/guideline-pharmaceutical-development-medicines-paediatric-use_en.pdf."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) (2014). European Medicines Agency Guideline on the Pharmacokinetic and Clinical Evaluation of Modified Release Dosage Forms (EMA\/CPMP\/EWP\/280\/96), Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP)."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rathbone, M.J. (2008). Modified-Release Drug Delivery Technology, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.3109\/9781420044362"},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Administration Centre for Drug US Department of Health and Human Services Food and Drug, and CDER Evaluation and Research (2026, January 01). Guidance for Industry Dissolution Testing of Immediate Release Solid Oral Dosage Forms, Available online: https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/media\/70936\/download."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"904","DOI":"10.1007\/s12603-017-0886-3","article-title":"Assessment of Clinical Practices for Crushing Medication in Geriatric Units","volume":"21","author":"Fodil","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Health Aging"},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Allerton, G.L. (2014). Pill Crushing Device and System 2014. (USPTO Patent US8684290B1), Available online: https:\/\/worldwide.espacenet.com\/patent\/search\/family\/050348743\/publication\/US8684290B1?q=pn%3DUS8684290B1."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Banov, F. (2026, January 01). The Art of Flavoring with Fabiana Banov: Mortar & Pestle. Available online: https:\/\/podcasts.apple.com\/us\/podcast\/the-art-of-flavoring-with-fabiana-banov\/id1436042984?i=1000537162275."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102729","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jddst.2021.102729","article-title":"Newly Designed Punch for Scored Tablets: Evaluation by an Expert System Based on Quality by Design","volume":"65","author":"Palugan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124836","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2024.124836","article-title":"Evaluation of Different Techniques for Wet Granulation and Pelletization Processes Using Milk as Innovative Pharmaceutical Excipient for Pediatric Use","volume":"666","author":"Coldani","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2004.04.015","article-title":"A Novel Powder Coating Process for Attaining Taste Masking and Moisture Protective Films Applied to Tablets","volume":"279","author":"Cerea","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1081\/DDC-120037477","article-title":"Taste Masking Technologies in Oral Pharmaceuticals: Recent Developments and Approaches","volume":"30","author":"Sohi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinthera.2008.11.020","article-title":"Extemporaneous Drug Formulations","volume":"30","author":"Nahata","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Ther."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinthera.2008.11.018","article-title":"Optimizing Oral Medications for Children","volume":"30","author":"Mennella","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Ther."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6132","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00942-12","article-title":"Comparison of the in Vivo Pharmacokinetics and in Vitro Dissolution of Raltegravir in HIV Patients Receiving the Drug by Swallowing or by Chewing","volume":"56","author":"Cattaneo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"(2025, August 29). European Medicines Agency (EMA) Prevymis\u2014EMA\/80635\/2025. Available online: https:\/\/www.ema.europa.eu\/en\/medicines\/human\/EPAR\/prevymis."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtct.2022.10.005","article-title":"Letermovir as Cytomegalovirus Prophylaxis in a Pediatric Cohort: A Retrospective Analysis","volume":"29","author":"Kuhn","year":"2023","journal-title":"Transplant. Cell. Ther."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3607","DOI":"10.21873\/anticanres.15848","article-title":"Letermovir Prophylaxis for Cytomegalovirus Infection in Children After Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation","volume":"42","author":"Jaremek","year":"2022","journal-title":"Anticancer. Res."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1038\/s41409-024-02209-2","article-title":"Letermovir for Cytomegalovirus Infection in Pediatric Patients Undergoing Allogenic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation: A Real-Life Study by the Infectious Diseases Working Group of Italian Association of Pediatric Hematology-Oncology (AIEOP)","volume":"59","author":"Galaverna","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bone Marrow Transplant."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1007\/s40272-022-00547-6","article-title":"Letermovir for Prophylaxis and Pre-Emptive Therapy of Cytomegalovirus Infection in Paediatric Allogeneic Haematopoietic Cell Transplant Patients","volume":"25","author":"Hennies","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pediatr. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"(2024, November 20). MSD Prevymis Tablets 240 mg Related Materials Book. Available online: https:\/\/www.pmda.go.jp\/drugs\/2018\/P20180402006\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1197","DOI":"10.1080\/17425255.2018.1550485","article-title":"Pharmacokinetic Drug Evaluation of Letermovir Prophylaxis for Cytomegalovirus in Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation","volume":"14","author":"Deleenheer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Metab. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"945","DOI":"10.1007\/s40262-024-01392-1","article-title":"Clinical Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Letermovir in Allogenic Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation","volume":"63","author":"Suetsugu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacokinet."},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"(2026, January 01). Pfizer ZYVOX (Linezolid) Injection (Linezolid) Tablets (Linezolid) for Oral Suspension. Pfizer Drug Manual, Available online: https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/drugsatfda_docs\/label\/2012\/021132s027lbl.pdf."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1007\/s40262-020-00964-1","article-title":"Supra-Therapeutic Linezolid Trough Concentrations in Elderly Patients: A Call for Action?","volume":"60","author":"Cattaneo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacokinet."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2016.08.023","article-title":"Therapeutic Drug Management of Linezolid: A Missed Opportunity for Clinicians?","volume":"48","author":"Cattaneo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1835","DOI":"10.1111\/bcp.15102","article-title":"Population Pharmacokinetics and Target Attainment Analysis of Linezolid in Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis Patients","volume":"88","author":"Tietjen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Datapharm Ltd (2026, January 01). Electronic Medicine Compendium. Available online: https:\/\/www.medicines.org.uk\/emc\/product\/1688."}],"container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/18\/2\/176\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]],"date-time":"2026-01-29T14:54:43Z","timestamp":1769698483000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/18\/2\/176"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]]},"references-count":85,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["pharmaceutics18020176"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pharmaceutics18020176","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4923"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4923","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]]}}}