{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T14:27:38Z","timestamp":1785421658573,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":101,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,24]],"date-time":"2026-05-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779580800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100005759","name":"PR NASA EPSCoR","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["80NSSC22M0025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NSSC22M0025"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100005759","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006231","name":"Brookhaven National Laboratory","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["307656"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["307656"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006231","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006231","name":"Brookhaven National Laboratory","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["308523"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["308523"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006231","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["307656"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["307656"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02ex6cf31","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["308523"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["308523"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02ex6cf31","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1626103"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1626103"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["1626103"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1626103"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/021nxhr62","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Andrographolide (ADG) is a plant-derived compound with promising anticancer properties, but its medical use is limited due to poor water solubility and low bioavailability. This study proposes developing a gold-based nanocomposite drug delivery system, using a simplified synthesis method, to improve ADG\u2019s hydrophilicity and enhance its delivery efficiency. Methods: A one-step method was used to synthesize gold nanocomposites with carbon quantum dots (CBQDs) and doped CBQDs acting as reducing and stabilizing agents. These nanocomposites were then conjugated with ADG and thoroughly characterized using multiple structural and spectroscopic techniques such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), ultraviolet\u2013visible spectroscopy (UV\u2013Vis), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Raman spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Hydrophilicity enhancement was evaluated using NMR-based log P measurements. Biological assessment involved cell viability assays and confocal microscopy studies in PC3 prostate cancer cells, along with the morphological evaluation of human red blood cells. Results: XRD confirmed the formation of crystalline, face-centered cubic gold nanoparticles, while spectroscopic analyses verified successful nanocomposite formation and ADG conjugation. NMR results showed enhanced hydrophilicity of ADG. Biological tests demonstrated that the nanocomposites were compatible with cells. Conclusions: This study presents a straightforward strategy for synthesizing gold-based nanocomposites that enhance the hydrophilicity and delivery potential of andrographolide, supporting their applicability as nanocarrier platforms for anticancer drug delivery.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics18060647","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,25]],"date-time":"2026-05-25T02:32:28Z","timestamp":1779676348000},"page":"647","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Andrographolide-Loaded Gold Carbon Quantum Dots and Their Doped Derivatives for Enhanced Hydrophilicity in a Drug Delivery System"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Wenndy","family":"Pantoja-Romero","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras Campus, San Juan, PR 00925, USA"},{"name":"Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00925, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexis","family":"Lav\u00edn Flores","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras Campus, San Juan, PR 00925, USA"},{"name":"Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00925, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4230-3937","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alejandro","family":"Lozada-Jerez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Health and Human Wellbeing, School of Dentistry, Indoamerica Technological University, Ambato 180202, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-6622-6192","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"MiaSara","family":"Perez-Salv\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00925, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras Campus, San Juan, PR 00925, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fabiola","family":"Rosa-Su\u00e1rez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00925, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras Campus, San Juan, PR 00925, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0921-3611","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Orestes","family":"Quesada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00925, USA"},{"name":"Department of Physical Sciences, University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras Campus, San Juan, PR 00925, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Magaly","family":"Mart\u00ednez-Ferrer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras Campus, San Juan, PR 00925, USA"},{"name":"Division of Cancer Biology, University of Puerto Rico Comprehensive Cancer Center, San Juan, PR 00925, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4787-2239","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gerardo","family":"Morell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00925, USA"},{"name":"Department of Physics, University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras Campus, San Juan, PR 00925, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5255-1918","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brad R.","family":"Weiner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras Campus, San Juan, PR 00925, USA"},{"name":"Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00925, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1038\/s41551-021-00698-w","article-title":"The evolution of commercial drug delivery technologies","volume":"5","author":"Vargason","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e17488","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e17488","article-title":"Advances in drug delivery systems, challenges and future directions","volume":"9","author":"Ezike","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemmater.2c03003","article-title":"The Future of Drug Delivery","volume":"35","author":"Gao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-023-01668-1","article-title":"Multifunctional nanoparticle-mediated combining therapy for human diseases","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sig. Transduct. Target Ther."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Thomas, S., Grohens, Y., and Ninan, N. (2015). Chapter 12\u2014Nanomedicine in Theranostics. Nanotechnology Applications for Tissue Engineering, Elsevier Inc."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2207181","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202207181","article-title":"Emerging Trends of Carbon-Based Quantum Dots: Nanoarchitectonics and Applications","volume":"19","author":"Guan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e707","DOI":"10.1002\/agt2.707","article-title":"Carbon Quantum Dots in Biomedical Applications: Advances, Challenges, and Future Prospects","volume":"6","author":"Pechnikova","year":"2025","journal-title":"Aggregate"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kong, J., Wei, Y., Zhou, F., Shi, L., Zhao, S., Wan, M., and Zhang, X. (2024). Carbon Quantum Dots: Properties, Preparation, and Applications. Molecules, 29.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules29092002"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1038\/s43246-025-01056-y","article-title":"Carbon quantum dots as multifunctional nanomaterials for sustainable optoelectronic biosensing and green photonics","volume":"7","author":"Sen","year":"2026","journal-title":"Commun. Mater."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1235","DOI":"10.1039\/c9pp00035f","article-title":"A nanocomposite of N-doped carbon dots with gold nanoparticles for visible light active photosensitisers","volume":"18","author":"Nozaki","year":"2019","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2025.163262","article-title":"Advances in doped carbon quantum dots: Synthesis, mechanisms, and applications in sensing technologies","volume":"514","author":"Sethulekshmi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3793","DOI":"10.1166\/jnn.2018.15242","article-title":"Synthesis of Nitrogen- and Chlorine-Doped Graphene Quantum Dots for Cancer Cell Imaging","volume":"18","author":"Nafiujjaman","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102032","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtchem.2024.102032","article-title":"The emerging development of nitrogen and sulfur co-doped carbon dots: Synthesis methods, influencing factors and applications","volume":"37","author":"Fu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mater. Today Chem."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e38177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e38177","article-title":"Multifunctional nitrogen-sulfur codoped carbon quantum dots: Determining reduced glutathione, broad-spectrum antibacterial activity, and cell imaging","volume":"10","author":"Ruan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e202200473","DOI":"10.1002\/slct.202200473","article-title":"Nitrogen and Sulfur Co-Doped Carbon Quantum Dots for Sensing Applications: A Review","volume":"7","author":"Somaraj","year":"2022","journal-title":"ChemistrySelect"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e5665","DOI":"10.1002\/aoc.5665","article-title":"Carbon Quantum Dots Decorated on ZnO Nanoparticles: An Efficient Visible-Light Responsive Antibacterial Agents","volume":"34","author":"Gao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Organomet. Chem."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1039\/C9SC06497D","article-title":"Surface chemistry of gold nanoparticles for health-related applications","volume":"11","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3903","DOI":"10.1007\/s44174-025-00421-2","article-title":"A Review of Gold Nanoparticles: Synthesis Methods and Biomedical Applications","volume":"4","author":"Mehdi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biomed. Mater. Devices."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1186\/s12943-023-01798-8","article-title":"Gold nanoparticles and gold nanorods in the landscape of cancer therapy","volume":"22","author":"Kesharwani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. Cancer."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118399","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2025.118399","article-title":"Gold nanoparticle-mediated photothermal therapy: Expanding the frontiers of cancer treatment and theragnostics","volume":"190","author":"Amaral","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petrucci, R., Bortolami, M., Di Matteo, P., and Curulli, A. (2022). Gold Nanomaterials-Based Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors for Phenolic Antioxidants Detection: Recent Advances. Nanomaterials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano12060959"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2227","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.cgd.4c01687","article-title":"Various Methods of Synthesis and Applications of Gold-Based Nanomaterials: A Detailed Review","volume":"25","author":"Gul","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cryst. Growth Des."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19246","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-02450-9","article-title":"Eco-friendly synthesis of gold nanoparticles using Equisetum diffusum D. Don. with broad-spectrum antibacterial, anticancer, antidiabetic, and antioxidant potentials","volume":"15","author":"Assad","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e202100732","DOI":"10.1002\/cmdc.202100732","article-title":"Andrographolide Derivatives Target the KEAP1\/NRF2 Axis and Possess Potent Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Activity","volume":"17","author":"Schulte","year":"2022","journal-title":"ChemMedChem"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1097\/CEJ.0000000000000685","article-title":"Sleep disorders and prostate cancer prognosis: Biology, epidemiology, and association with cancer development risk","volume":"31","author":"Porcacchia","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cancer. Prev."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Takayama, K. (2019). Splicing Factors Have an Essential Role in Prostate Cancer Progression and Androgen Receptor Signaling. Biomolecules, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom9040131"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sekhoacha, M., Riet, K., Motloung, P., Gumenku, L., Adegoke, A., and Mashele, S. (2022). Prostate Cancer Review: Genetics, Diagnosis, Treatment Options, and Alternative Approaches. Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27175730"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"42","article-title":"Emerging therapies to overcome antiandrogen resistance and beyond in lethal prostate cancer","volume":"6","author":"Huang","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Natl. Cancer Cent."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Su, S., and Kang, P.M. (2020). Recent Advances in Nanocarrier-Assisted Therapeutics Delivery Systems. Pharmaceutics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics12090837"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.33263\/BRIAC152.019","article-title":"Recent Advances in Formulations for Andrographolide Delivery System","volume":"15","author":"Kirana","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biointerface Res. Appl. Chem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.31276\/VJSTE.64(3).62-68","article-title":"Current nanocarriers in therapeutic improvement of Andrographolide","volume":"64","author":"Nguyen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vietnam. J. Sci. Technol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jddst.2025.107290","article-title":"Self-emulsifying formulation of andrographolide: Development, characterization and investigation on pharmacokinetics and pharmacological profile","volume":"112","author":"Haq","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tipduangta, P., Chansakaow, S., Tansakul, P., Meungjai, R., and Dilokthornsakul, P. (2024). Polymer Matrix and Manufacturing Methods in Solid Dispersion System for Enhancing Andrographolide Solubility and Absorption: A Systematic Review. Pharmaceutics, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics16050688"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"2213","article-title":"Dissolved black carbon mediated photo-reductive formation of colloidal-stable gold nanoparticles","volume":"12","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1246","DOI":"10.1007\/s11051-012-1246-1","article-title":"Adsorption of surface functionalized silica nanoparticles onto mineral surfaces and decane\/water interface","volume":"14","author":"Metin","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Nanoparticle Res."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"12575","article-title":"Synthesis and Characterization of Carbon-Based Quantum Dots and Doped Derivatives for Improved Andrographolide\u2019s Hydrophilicity in Drug Delivery Platforms","volume":"9","author":"Flores","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.4103\/jmau.jmau_70_23","article-title":"Red Blood Cells in Health and Disease","volume":"13","author":"Giri","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Microsc. Ultrastruct."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"248","article-title":"Assessing Haemoglobin Concentration and Red Cell Morphology in Stored Blood Units","volume":"5","author":"Quaye","year":"2022","journal-title":"IJR2H"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6244","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.7b01102","article-title":"Octanol\u2013Water Partition Coefficient Measurement by a Simple 1H NMR Method","volume":"2","author":"Cumming","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1016\/S0045-6535(02)00118-2","article-title":"Estimation of aqueous solubility of organic compounds by using the general solubility equation","volume":"48","author":"Ran","year":"2002","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.5599\/admet.1022","article-title":"Drug-like Properties and Fraction Lipophilicity Index as a combined metric","volume":"9","author":"Demopoulos","year":"2021","journal-title":"ADMET DMPK"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drudis.2010.05.016","article-title":"Getting physical in drug discovery: A contemporary perspective on solubility and hydrophobicity","volume":"15","author":"Hill","year":"2010","journal-title":"Drug Discov. Today"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e801","DOI":"10.1002\/cpz1.801","article-title":"Introduction to the Use of Linear and Nonlinear Regression Analysis in Quantitative Biological Assays","volume":"3","author":"Jarantow","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"607621","article-title":"Quantification of gold nanoparticle cell uptake under controlled biological conditions and adequate resolution","volume":"9","author":"Kuhn","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nanomedicine"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21215","DOI":"10.1039\/C9RA02758K","article-title":"Synthesis of Graphene Quantum Dot-Stabilized Gold Nanoparticles and Their Application","volume":"9","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1025","DOI":"10.1016\/j.saa.2012.08.010","article-title":"Characterization and catalytic activity of gold nanoparticles synthesized using ayurvedic arishtams","volume":"96","author":"Aromal","year":"2012","journal-title":"Spectrochim. Acta A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3285","DOI":"10.1039\/D4NA00139G","article-title":"Possibilities and limitations of solution-state NMR spectroscopy to analyze the ligand shell of ultrasmall metal nanoparticles","volume":"6","author":"Wolff","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nanoscale Adv."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S751","DOI":"10.1080\/21691401.2018.1435549","article-title":"Andrographolide engineered gold nanoparticle to overcome drug resistantvisceral leishmaniasis","volume":"46","author":"Das","year":"2018","journal-title":"Artif. Cells Nanomed. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carvalho, A.P.G., Alegria, E.C.B.A., Fantoni, A., Ferraria, A.M., Do Rego, A.M.B., and Ribeiro, A.P.C. (2022). Effect of Graphene vs. Reduced Graphene Oxide in Gold Nanoparticles for Optical Biosensors\u2014A Comparative Study. Biosensors, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios12030163"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2017.05.063","article-title":"Silver Nanoparticles Embedded Boron-Doped Reduced Graphene Oxide as Anode Material for High Performance Lithium Ion Battery","volume":"243","author":"Bindumadhavan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Electrochem. Acta"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"708","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2013.11.052","article-title":"Optical Properties of Gold\/Multilayer-Graphene\/Carbon Nanotube Hybrid Materials","volume":"68","author":"Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"159","article-title":"Terahertz Multispectral Imaging for the Analysis of Gold Nanoparticles\u2019 Size and the Number of Unit Cells in Comparison with Other Techniques","volume":"4","author":"Uddin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1429","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S42613","article-title":"Few-Layer Graphene Sheets with Embedded Gold Nanoparticles for Electrochemical Analysis of Adenine","volume":"8","author":"Biris","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00592","DOI":"10.1002\/adom.202500592","article-title":"Carbon Dot-Enhanced Charge Transfer in Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering Active Hybrid Systems","volume":"13","author":"Yaraki","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Opt. Mater."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8597","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.4c00165","article-title":"Plasmon-Induced Hot Electrons in Nanostructured Materials: Generation, Collection, and Application to Pho-tochemistry","volume":"124","author":"Zhou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3571","DOI":"10.1039\/D3NR05897B","article-title":"Photochemical synthesis, characterization, and electrochemical sensing properties of CD\u2013AuNP nanohybrids","volume":"16","author":"Nocito","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28674","DOI":"10.1039\/D1RA05164D","article-title":"Synergism of carbon quantum dots and Au nanoparticles with Bi2MoO6 for activity-enhanced photocatalytic oxidative degradation of phenol","volume":"11","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"557","article-title":"Andrographolide determination of Andrographis paniculata extracts, ethyl acetate fractions and tablets by thin layer chromatography","volume":"7","author":"Hafid","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Chem. Pharm. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-020-04294-8","article-title":"Nitrogen-Doped Graphene Quantum Dots Prepared by Electrolysis of Nitrogen-Doped Nanomesh Graphene for the Fluorometric Determination of Ferric Ions","volume":"187","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1211","DOI":"10.1021\/cm303361s","article-title":"A Solution NMR Toolbox for Characterizing the Surface Chemistry of Colloidal Nanocrystals","volume":"25","author":"Hens","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1074","DOI":"10.1002\/mrc.4753","article-title":"Characterizing Gold Nanoparticles by NMR Spectroscopy","volume":"56","author":"Guo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Magn. Reson. Chem."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1911","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.accounts.7b00165","article-title":"Characterization of Ligand Shell for Mixed-Ligand Coated Gold Nanoparticles","volume":"50","author":"Ong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acc. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116758","DOI":"10.1016\/j.synthmet.2021.116758","article-title":"Review of Performance Improvement Strategies for Doped Graphene Quantum Dots for Fluorescence-Based Sensing","volume":"276","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Synth. Met."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15918","DOI":"10.1002\/chem.201302207","article-title":"Preparation of Excitation-Independent Photoluminescent Graphene Quantum Dots with Visible-Light Excitation\/Emission for Cell Imaging","volume":"19","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chem. A Eur. J."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2153","DOI":"10.1021\/acsanm.8b00210","article-title":"One-Step Synthesis of Size-Tunable Gold@Sulfur-Doped Graphene Quantum Dot Nanocomposites for Highly Selective and Sensitive Detection of Nanomolar 4-Nitrophenol in Aqueous Solutions with Complex Matrix","volume":"1","author":"Anh","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Nano Mater."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, B., Wang, X., Ding, L., Han, M., and Guo, Y. (2022). Hydrophilic Natural Polylysine as Drug Nanocarrier for Preparation of Helical Delivery System. Pharmaceutics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics14112512"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1136","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.38287","article-title":"High Loading of Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Agents via Small Immunostimulatory Carrier for Enhanced Tumor Penetration and Combinational Therapy","volume":"10","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8151","DOI":"10.1039\/D1QM00855B","article-title":"Amphiphilic-like Carbon Dots as Antitumoral Drug Vehicles and Phototherapeutical Agents","volume":"5","author":"Plesselova","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Chem. Front."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Feng, Y., Dong, P., and Huang, J. (2019). A Mini Review on Carbon Quantum Dots: Preparation, Properties, and Electrocatalytic Application. Front. Chem., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fchem.2019.00671"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbagen.2022.130283","article-title":"Computational and experimental therapeutic efficacy analysis of andrographolide phospholipid complex self-assembled nanoparticles against Neuro2a cells","volume":"1867","author":"Mourya","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta Gen. Subj."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chroma.2022.463146","article-title":"AlphaLogD Determination: A New Generation Reversed-Phase HPLC Method to Measure Lipophilicity on Neutral and Basic Small and Beyond-Rule-of-Five Compounds","volume":"1674","author":"Katz","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. A"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104006","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jddst.2022.104006","article-title":"Enhancing oral bioavailability of andrographolide via sodium dodecyl sulfate and D-\u03b1-Tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate copolymer modified nanocrystals","volume":"79","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1038\/s42004-023-00992-5","article-title":"Using surface plasmon resonance, capillary electrophoresis and diffusion-ordered NMR spectroscopy to study drug release kinetics","volume":"6","author":"Homola","year":"2023","journal-title":"Commun. Chem."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cis.2015.02.002","article-title":"Encapsulation, protection, and release of hydrophilic active components: Potential and limitations of colloidal delivery systems","volume":"219","author":"McClements","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"355","article-title":"Andrographolide: Its Pharmacology, Natural Bioavailability and Current Approaches to Increase Its Content in Andrographispaniculata","volume":"11","author":"Pandey","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Complement. Alt. Med."},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"669","article-title":"Nanoemulsion as a Strategy for Improving the Oral Bioavailability and Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Andrographolide","volume":"13","author":"Yen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1668","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.21383","article-title":"PC3 is a cell line characteristic of prostatic small cell carcinoma","volume":"71","author":"Tai","year":"2011","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1097\/PAS.0b013e318058a96b","article-title":"Small cell carcinoma of the prostate: A morphologic and immunohistochemical study of 95 cases","volume":"32","author":"Wang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Surg. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yadav, P.K., Chandra, S., Kumar, V., Kumar, D., and Hasan, S.H. (2023). Carbon quantum dots: Synthesis, structure, properties, and catalytic applications for organic synthesis. Catalysts, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/catal13020422"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, X., Xiong, S., Sun, Y., Zhong, M., Xiao, N., Zhou, Z., Wang, T., Tang, Y., and Xie, J. (2023). Recent progress of rational modified nanocarriers for cytosolic protein delivery. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics15061610"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15960","DOI":"10.3389\/bjbs.2026.15960","article-title":"Carbon Quantum Dots as Versatile Nanosystems for Biomedical Innovation: Mechanisms, Applications, and Translational Prospects","volume":"83","author":"Maan","year":"2026","journal-title":"Br. J. Biomed. Sci."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2295","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-30541-3","article-title":"Gold nanoparticles-induced cytotoxicity in triple negative breast cancer involves different epigenetic alterations depending upon the surface charge","volume":"8","author":"Surapaneni","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1039\/C3TB20832J","article-title":"Cytotoxicity of nanoscaled metal\u2013organic frameworks","volume":"2","author":"Cunha","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1085","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.26628","article-title":"Andrographolide induces DNA damage in prostate cancer cells","volume":"10","year":"2019","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"306","article-title":"Cellular imaging of endosome entrapped small gold nanoparticles","volume":"2","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Methods X"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1269\/jrr.10068","article-title":"Size, concentration and incubation time dependence of gold nanoparticle uptake into pancreas cancer cells and its future application to X-Ray drug delivery system","volume":"52","author":"Trono","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Radiat. Res."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.1021\/nl052396o","article-title":"Determining the Size and Shape Dependence of Gold Nanoparticle Uptake into Mammalian Cells","volume":"6","author":"Chithrani","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1007\/s00249-025-01769-5","article-title":"Uptake of gold nanoparticles in HeLa cells observed by confocal microscopy shows dependency on particle size and shape","volume":"55","author":"Pakravanan","year":"2026","journal-title":"Eur. Biophys. J."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1089","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbalip.2013.01.018","article-title":"Lipid-coated gold nanoparticles promote lamellar body formation in A549 cells","volume":"1831","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta Mol. Cell Biol. Lipids."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36576","DOI":"10.1039\/D4RA06340F","article-title":"Green synthesis, characterization, morphological diversity, and colorectal cancer cytotoxicity of gold nanoparticles","volume":"14","author":"Akhtar","year":"2024","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2016.02.007","article-title":"Red blood cells: Supercarriers for drugs, biologicals, and nanoparticles and inspiration for advanced delivery systems","volume":"106","author":"Villa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3387","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.023697","article-title":"The dual roles of red blood cells in tissue oxygen delivery: Oxygen carriers and regulators of local blood flow","volume":"212","author":"Jensen","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2011.05.023","article-title":"Gold nanoparticle-incorporated human red blood cells (RBCs) for X-ray dynamic imaging","volume":"32","author":"Ahn","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1366","DOI":"10.1021\/nn103077k","article-title":"Interaction of mesoporous silica nanoparticles with human red blood cell membranes: Size and surface effects","volume":"5","author":"Zhao","year":"2011","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.3109\/17435390.2013.773465","article-title":"Surface functionalization affects the zeta potential, coronal stability and membranolytic activity of polymeric nanoparticles","volume":"8","author":"Cho","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nanotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.3233\/JCB-15007","article-title":"Advances in the measurement of red blood cell deformability: A brief review","volume":"1","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Cell. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.3233\/CH-2009-1172","article-title":"Measurement of erythrocyte aggregation in a microchip stirring system by light transmission","volume":"41","author":"Shin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Hemorheol. Microcirc."},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"(2017). Biological Evaluation of Medical Devices\u2014Part 4: Selection of Tests for Interactions with Blood (Standard No. ISO 10993-4:2017)."},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"(2017). Standard Practice for Assessment of Hemolytic Properties of Materials (Standard No. ASTM F756-17)."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3549","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201300638","article-title":"Surface Functionalization of Gold Nanoparticles with Red Blood Cell Membranes","volume":"25","author":"Gao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2016.09.034","article-title":"Hemorheological characteristics of red blood cells exposed to surface functionalized graphene quantum dots","volume":"97","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."}],"container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/18\/6\/647\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,26]],"date-time":"2026-05-26T04:21:24Z","timestamp":1779769284000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/18\/6\/647"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,24]]},"references-count":101,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["pharmaceutics18060647"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pharmaceutics18060647","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4923"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4923","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,24]]}}}