{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T16:13:57Z","timestamp":1785428037262,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":141,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]],"date-time":"2026-06-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782259200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["32402880"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32402880"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["32402880"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32402880"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004735","name":"Hunan Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2024JJ6212"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024JJ6212"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004735","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have emerged as versatile antiviral nanoplatforms because their size, morphology, plasmonic properties, and surface chemistry can be precisely engineered. In this review, we summarize the core design principles of antiviral AuNPs from a structure\u2013function\u2013mechanism perspective. We first outline representative synthetic and interface-programming routes for AuNP preparation, including citrate reduction, Brust\u2013Schiffrin synthesis, seed-mediated growth, green synthesis, direct thiol-conjugation, and mixed-ligand shell strategies, emphasizing how these approaches define particle size, morphology, surface accessibility, interfacial composition, and downstream biofunctionalization potential. We then discuss major surface engineering strategies, including polyethylene glycol, nucleic acids, antibodies and nanobodies, peptides, glycans, antiviral drugs, and biomimetic coatings, with particular attention to how ligand density, orientation, flexibility, and interfacial stability determine biological performance. Next, we examine how functionalized AuNPs inhibit different stages of the viral life cycle, including viral attachment and entry, intracellular replication, assembly and egress, photothermal inactivation, and immune modulation or vaccine delivery. Finally, we highlight current challenges, including incomplete structure\u2013activity relationships, dynamic nano\u2013bio interactions under physiological conditions, limited standardization across studies, and translational barriers related to safety, reproducibility, and scale-up. This review provides a conceptual framework for the rational development of next-generation AuNP-based antiviral nanotherapeutics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics18070769","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,26]],"date-time":"2026-06-26T05:52:11Z","timestamp":1782453131000},"page":"769","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Gold Nanoparticles for Antiviral Applications: Design Principles, Surface Engineering, and Mechanistic Insights"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Kang","family":"Shu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Life and Health Sciences, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yating","family":"Lei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Life and Health Sciences, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Linjie","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Life and Health Sciences, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shike","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Life and Health Sciences, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8980-9038","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ting","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, College of Food Science and Engineering, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0971-2472","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ting","family":"Tong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Life and Health Sciences, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1038\/s44259-025-00125-z","article-title":"Strategies and efforts in circumventing the emergence of antiviral resistance against conventional antivirals","volume":"3","author":"Aw","year":"2025","journal-title":"npj Antimicrob. 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