{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T16:57:23Z","timestamp":1785430643674,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,29]],"date-time":"2026-06-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782691200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Open Access Publication Funds of the Heinrich Heine University D\u00fcsseldorf"},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/024z2rq82","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Neuroinflammation contributes to the etiopathology and symptom severity of neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric disorders. Glial cells, especially microglia and astrocytes, play a crucial role in neuroinflammation. It has been reported that ginseng (Panax ginseng) and its bioactive component ginsenoside Rg1 exhibit anti-inflammatory effects and can improve cognitive performance in various models. However, the exact underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Methods: Astrocyte\u2013microglia co-culture models simulating physiological (M5, 5\u201310% microglia) and pathological\/inflammatory (M30, 30\u201340% microglia) conditions were treated with different concentrations of ginsenoside Rg1 (15, 30, 45 \u00b5M) or ginseng extract (derived from Korean red ginseng) at low (12.5, 25, 37.5 \u00b5g\/mL) or high doses (125, 250, 375 \u00b5g\/mL) for 24 h. Cell viability was assessed using the MTT assay while microglial reactivity was examined using immunocytochemistry. Astrocytic gap-junctional coupling was investigated using the scrape-loading method, and connexin 43 (Cx43) expression was analyzed using immunocytochemistry and Western blot. Results: Both Rg1 and low-dose ginseng extract reduced microglial activation under inflammatory conditions by promoting a shift in microglia from an activated to homeostatic (resting) phenotype. Rg1 preserved astrocytic gap-junctional function by preventing the inflammation-induced downregulation of Cx43 expression and enhancing Cx43-mediated gap-junctional intercellular communication. Rg1 caused a significant reduction in glial cell viability, but only at high concentrations (30 and 45 \u00b5M), under inflammatory conditions. High-dose ginseng extract showed a significant concentration-dependent reduction in glial cell viability under physiological and pathological conditions, without comparable anti-inflammatory benefits. Conclusions: This study demonstrates that low-dose ginseng and its active compound Rg1 exert anti-inflammatory effects by modulating astrocytic coupling and microglial reactivity. These results provide a novel therapeutic perspective for the use of ginseng in the treatment of neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric diseases related to neuroinflammation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics18070806","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T10:01:17Z","timestamp":1782813677000},"page":"806","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Ginsenoside Rg1 and Low-Dose Ginseng Extract in an Astrocyte\u2013Microglia Co-Culture Model of Inflammation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Shaoning","family":"An","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroanatomy and Molecular Brain Research, Medical Faculty, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laura","family":"Sch\u00f6nfelder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroanatomy and Molecular Brain Research, Medical Faculty, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Reusch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Medical Faculty, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pedro M.","family":"Faustmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroanatomy and Molecular Brain Research, Medical Faculty, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fatme S.","family":"Ismail","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Medical Faculty, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Timo Jendrik","family":"Faustmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University D\u00fcsseldorf, 40225 D\u00fcsseldorf, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1007\/s10787-012-0124-x","article-title":"Inflammation in Neurological and Psychiatric Diseases","volume":"20","author":"Khansari","year":"2012","journal-title":"Inflammopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadx0043","DOI":"10.1126\/science.adx0043","article-title":"Neuroinflammation across Neurological Diseases","volume":"388","author":"Shi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-022-02297-y","article-title":"Neuroinflammation Mechanisms of Neuromodulation Therapies for Anxiety and Depression","volume":"13","author":"Guo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, L., Liu, J., Bao, J., Bai, Q., and Wang, G. (2020). Interaction of Microglia and Astrocytes in the Neurovascular Unit. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.01024"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-022-02565-0","article-title":"Astrocytic and Microglial Cells as the Modulators of Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"19","author":"Singh","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1002\/glia.10141","article-title":"Microglia Activation Influences Dye Coupling and Cx43 Expression of the Astrocytic Network","volume":"42","author":"Faustmann","year":"2003","journal-title":"Glia"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1002\/glia.20223","article-title":"Effects of Cytokines on Microglial Phenotypes and Astroglial Coupling in an Inflammatory Coculture Model","volume":"52","author":"Hinkerohe","year":"2005","journal-title":"Glia"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1422","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-013-8620-6","article-title":"Phagocytosis of Microglia in the Central Nervous System Diseases","volume":"49","author":"Fu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-018-0334-7","article-title":"Increased Synapse Elimination by Microglia in Schizophrenia Patient-Derived Models of Synaptic Pruning","volume":"22","author":"Sellgren","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bilbo, S.D. (2009). Early-Life Programming of Later-Life Brain and Behavior: A Critical Role for the Immune System. Front. Behav. Neurosci., 3.","DOI":"10.3389\/neuro.08.014.2009"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u00fcller, L., and Di Benedetto, S. (2025). Neuroimmune Crosstalk in Chronic Neuroinflammation: Microglial Interactions and Immune Modulation. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 19.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2025.1575022"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2020.08.012","article-title":"Astrocyte Crosstalk in CNS Inflammation","volume":"108","author":"Linnerbauer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ismail, F.S., Corvace, F., Faustmann, P.M., and Faustmann, T.J. (2021). Pharmacological Investigations in Glia Culture Model of Inflammation. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2021.805755"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Faustmann, T.J., Corvace, F., Faustmann, P.M., and Ismail, F.S. (2025). Influence of Antipsychotic Drugs on Microglia-Mediated Neuroinflammation in Schizophrenia: Perspectives in an Astrocyte\u2013Microglia Co-Culture Model. Front. Psychiatry, 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2025.1522128"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174696","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2021.174696","article-title":"Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Lacosamide in an Astrocyte-Microglia Co-Culture Model of Inflammation","volume":"915","author":"Corvace","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1093\/ijnp\/pyab080","article-title":"Effects of Lamotrigine and Topiramate on Glial Properties in an Astrocyte-Microglia Co-Culture Model of Inflammation","volume":"25","author":"Faustmann","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2297","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.16968","article-title":"Experimental Investigations of Antiepileptic Drugs in Astrocytes-microglia Co-cultures Suggest Possible Protective Effects on Astrocytes during Early Epileptogenesis","volume":"62","author":"Ismail","year":"2021","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1254\/jphs.CRJ05010X","article-title":"Use of Ginseng in Medicine With Emphasis on Neurodegenerative Disorders","volume":"100","author":"Radad","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1186\/s13195-018-0380-0","article-title":"Effects of Lifetime Cumulative Ginseng Intake on Cognitive Function in Late Life","volume":"10","author":"Lho","year":"2018","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2017.07.019","article-title":"Panax Ginseng and Panax Quinquefolius: From Pharmacology to Toxicology","volume":"107","author":"Mancuso","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1038\/s41401-022-01022-1","article-title":"Ginsenoside Rg1 in Neurological Diseases: From Bench to Bedside","volume":"44","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Pharmacol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jgr.2021.08.001","article-title":"Ginsenoside Rg1 Attenuates Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury Due to Inhibition of NOX2-Mediated Calcium Homeostasis Dysregulation in Mice","volume":"46","author":"Han","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Ginseng Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcma.2014.01.001","article-title":"Neuroprotective Effects of Ginsenoside Rg1 against Oxygen\u2013Glucose Deprivation in Cultured Hippocampal Neurons","volume":"77","author":"He","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Chin. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Quan, Q., Li, X., Yuan, H., Wang, Y., and Liu, W. (2016). Ginsenoside Rg1 Inhibits High-Voltage-Activated Calcium Channel Currents in Hippocampal Neurons of Beta-Amyloid Peptide-Exposed Rat Brain Slices. Chin. J. Integr. Med.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11655-015-2301-4"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.3892\/ijmm.2016.2485","article-title":"Ginsenoside Rg1 Exerts a Protective Effect against A\u03b225\u201335-Induced Toxicity in Primary Cultured Rat Cortical Neurons through the NF-\u03baB\/NO Pathway","volume":"37","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2402114","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202402114","article-title":"Ginsenoside Rg1 Regulates Immune Microenvironment and Neurological Recovery After Spinal Cord Injury Through MYCBP2 Delivery via Neuronal Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles","volume":"11","author":"Rong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jgr.2022.05.002","article-title":"Ginsenoside Rg1 Promotes Neurite Growth of Retinal Ganglion Cells through cAMP\/PKA\/CREB Pathways","volume":"48","author":"Jiang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Ginseng Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2855","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-022-02740-7","article-title":"Ginsenoside Rg1 Reduced Microglial Activation and Mitochondrial Dysfunction to Alleviate Depression-Like Behaviour Via the GAS5\/EZH2\/SOCS3\/NRF2 Axis","volume":"59","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2024.118531","article-title":"Ginsenoside Rg1 Regulates Astrocytes to Promote Angiogenesis in Spinal Cord Injury via the JAK2\/STAT3 Signaling Pathway","volume":"334","author":"Yin","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156587","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phymed.2025.156587","article-title":"Ginseng in Delaying Brain Aging: Progress and Perspectives","volume":"140","author":"Niu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Phytomedicine"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"1934578X19868393","article-title":"A Review of the Different Methods Applied in Ginsenoside Extraction From Panax Ginseng and Panax Quinquefolius Roots","volume":"14","author":"Jegal","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Commun."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1735","DOI":"10.1007\/s10068-017-0149-4","article-title":"Changes in Ginsenoside Patterns of Red Ginseng Extracts According to Manufacturing and Storage Conditions","volume":"26","author":"Lee","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Sci. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1308","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbagen.2007.06.008","article-title":"Neuroprotective Effect of Individual Ginsenosides on Astrocytes Primary Culture","volume":"1770","author":"Cuadrado","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta (BBA)-General. Subj."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2024.12.011","article-title":"Ginsenoside Rg1 Attenuates A\u03b21-42-Induced Microglial Cell Apoptosis and Inflammation in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease via the GATA4\/PDE4A\/PI3K\/AKT Axis","volume":"565","author":"Fang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jgr.2019.06.002","article-title":"Ginsenoside Rh2 Attenuates Microglial Activation against Toxoplasmic Encephalitis via TLR4\/NF-\u03baB Signaling Pathway","volume":"44","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Ginseng Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chung, T.-H., Kim, J.-H., Seol, S.-Y., Kim, Y.-J., and Lee, Y.-J. (2021). The Effects of Korean Red Ginseng on Biological Aging and Antioxidant Capacity in Postmenopausal Women: A Double-Blind Randomized Controlled Study. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13093090"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"985174","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/985174","article-title":"Antiatherosclerotic Effect of Korean Red Ginseng Extract Involves Regulator of G-Protein Signaling 5","volume":"2014","author":"Im","year":"2014","journal-title":"Evid.-Based Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, Y., Yang, Y., Liu, S., Yang, S., Chen, C., Lin, M., Zeng, Q., Long, J., Yao, J., and Yi, F. (2022). New Therapeutic Approaches to and Mechanisms of Ginsenoside Rg1 against Neurological Diseases. Cells, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11162529"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1833","DOI":"10.1007\/s10571-022-01301-9","article-title":"Involvement of the G-Protein-Coupled Estrogen Receptor-1 (GPER) Signaling Pathway in Neurodegenerative Disorders: A Review","volume":"43","author":"Upadhayay","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, X.-Q., Du, Z.-R., Yuan, L.-J., Zhang, W.-D., Chen, L., Teng, J.-J., Wong, M.-S., Xie, J.-X., and Chen, W.-F. (2019). Ginsenoside Rg1 Exerts Anti-Inflammatory Effects via G Protein-Coupled Estrogen Receptor in Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Microglia Activation. Front. Neurosci., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2019.01168"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2007.03.010","article-title":"Neuroprotective Effect of a Ginseng (Panax Ginseng) Root Extract on Astrocytes Primary Culture","volume":"112","author":"Naval","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smim.2016.03.011","article-title":"Regulation of Microglial Survival and Proliferation in Health and Diseases","volume":"27","author":"Ulland","year":"2015","journal-title":"Semin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"904","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-020-03084-7","article-title":"CSF1R Signaling Is a Regulator of Pathogenesis in Progressive MS","volume":"11","author":"Hagan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2023.176120","article-title":"Ginsenoside Rg1 Ameliorates Depressive-like Behavior by Inhibiting NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation in Mice Exposed to Chronic Stress","volume":"960","author":"He","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117669","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2020.117669","article-title":"Ginsenoside Rg1 Ameliorates Chronic Social Defeat Stress-Induced Depressive-like Behaviors and Hippocampal Neuroinflammation","volume":"252","author":"Jiang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1038\/s41401-020-0358-x","article-title":"Rg1 Improves LPS-Induced Parkinsonian Symptoms in Mice via Inhibition of NF-\u03baB Signaling and Modulation of M1\/M2 Polarization","volume":"41","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Pharmacol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2020.173309","article-title":"The Protective Effect of Ginsenoside Rg1 on Depression May Benefit from the Gap Junction Function in Hippocampal Astrocytes","volume":"882","author":"Lou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.05-4297fje","article-title":"Proinflammatory Cytokines Released from Microglia Inhibit Gap Junctions in Astrocytes: Potentiation by \u0392-amyloid","volume":"20","author":"Calvo","year":"2006","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70150","DOI":"10.1111\/cns.70150","article-title":"Ginsenoside Rg1: A Neuroprotective Natural Dammarane-Type Triterpenoid Saponin With Anti-Depressive Properties","volume":"30","author":"Han","year":"2024","journal-title":"CNS Neurosci. Ther."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2021.114212","article-title":"Novel Antidepressant Mechanism of Ginsenoside Rg1: Regulating Biosynthesis and Degradation of Connexin43","volume":"278","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1042\/BJ20051922","article-title":"Life Cycle of Connexins in Health and Disease","volume":"394","author":"Laird","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biochem. J."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033583501003705","article-title":"Emerging Issues of Connexin Channels: Biophysics Fills the Gap","volume":"34","author":"Harris","year":"2001","journal-title":"Q. Rev. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13781","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2042-07.2007","article-title":"Cx43 Hemichannels and Gap Junction Channels in Astrocytes Are Regulated Oppositely by Proinflammatory Cytokines Released from Activated Microglia","volume":"27","author":"Retamal","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2022.10.007","article-title":"Interferon \u03b3: A Master Cytokine in Microglia-Mediated Neural Network Dysfunction and Neurodegeneration","volume":"45","author":"Kann","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e332","DOI":"10.3346\/jkms.2021.36.e332","article-title":"Effects of Lipopolysaccharide on Oligodendrocyte Differentiation at Different Developmental Stages: An In Vitro Study","volume":"36","author":"Ahn","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Korean Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.14715\/cmb\/2019.65.5.6","article-title":"Naringin Inhibits Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Activation of Microglia Cells","volume":"65","author":"Bai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2019.08.184","article-title":"Corticosterone-Mediated Microglia Activation Affects Dendritic Spine Plasticity and Motor Learning Functions in Minimal Hepatic Encephalopathy","volume":"82","author":"Sun","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-0102(99)00071-1","article-title":"Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Microglial Activation in Culture: Temporal Profiles of Morphological Change and Release of Cytokines and Nitric Oxide","volume":"35","author":"Nakamura","year":"1999","journal-title":"Neurosci. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1186\/s40478-024-01898-6","article-title":"3-Dimensional Morphological Characterization of Neuroretinal Microglia in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease via Machine Learning","volume":"12","author":"Nassrallah","year":"2024","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol. Commun."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reddaway, J., Richardson, P.E., Bevan, R.J., Stoneman, J., and Palombo, M. (2023). Microglial Morphometric Analysis: So Many Options, so Little Consistency. Front. Neuroinform., 17.","DOI":"10.3389\/fninf.2023.1211188"}],"container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/18\/7\/806\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T14:22:10Z","timestamp":1783606930000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/18\/7\/806"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,29]]},"references-count":60,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["pharmaceutics18070806"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pharmaceutics18070806","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4923"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4923","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,29]]}}}