{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T02:15:33Z","timestamp":1787796933019,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":104,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]],"date-time":"2026-07-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784160000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004504","name":"Research Council of Lithuania","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["S-A-UEI-23-7"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["S-A-UEI-23-7"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004504","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["S-A-UEI-23-7"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["S-A-UEI-23-7"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02gs16m83","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Transdermal films are promising dosage forms for controlled delivery of active pharmaceutical ingredients through the skin. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)-based matrices are particularly attractive due to their biocompatibility, film-forming ability, and versatility. However, the development of films for volatile compounds such as menthol remains challenging due to high potential losses during processing and application. This study compares PVA-based transdermal films fabricated by 3D printing, solvent casting, and electrospinning, focusing on the effect of fabrication method on film properties, release behaviour, and skin delivery performance. Methods: A comprehensive characterization included morphology, structure, thickness, moisture content, mechanical properties, adhesion, menthol content, in vitro release, ex vivo permeation, and stability. Results: Fabrication method significantly influenced film microstructure, menthol entrapment, and stability. Menthol acted as a plasticiser, increasing thickness and moisture content while reducing mechanical strength via disruption of intermolecular interactions within the PVA matrix. The 3D-printed films exhibited the highest entrapment efficiency (14.40%, corresponding to 4.00% menthol content in the dried matrix) and superior menthol retention after 6 months (75.0%), compared to solvent-cast and electrospun films, due to their dense layered structure limiting volatile losses. All formulations showed biphasic release behaviour, strongly dependent on fabrication method. Electrospun films released menthol fastest (68.94% at 1 h), followed by solvent-cast films (63.48% at 1 h), whereas 3D-printed films exhibited a more sustained profile (46.14% at 2 h), reflecting differences in porosity and diffusion pathways. These structural differences also affected skin delivery, with 3D-printed systems demonstrating higher epidermal flux than the other formulations. Conclusions: Overall, fabrication method governed film microstructure and thereby controlled menthol entrapment, release, and transdermal performance. Extrusion-based 3D printing offers a promising strategy for designing transdermal systems for volatile compounds with improved structural control and delivery efficiency.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics18070871","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]],"date-time":"2026-07-17T05:32:17Z","timestamp":1784266337000},"page":"871","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Influence of Fabrication Techniques on the Physicochemical, Textural, Release and Skin Delivery Performance of Polyvinyl Alcohol-Based Transdermal Films Containing Menthol: A Comparative Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-6615-4477","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gintaras","family":"Matulis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Drug Technology and Social Pharmacy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, LT-50161 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8968-0262","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuliia","family":"Maslii","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Drug Technology and Social Pharmacy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, LT-50161 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nataliia","family":"Herbina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Drug Technology and Social Pharmacy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, LT-50161 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mindaugas","family":"Marksa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Analytical and Toxicological Chemistry, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, LT-50161 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6233-903X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Agn\u0117","family":"Mazurkevi\u010di\u016bt\u0117","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Pharmaceutical Technologies, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical Academy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, LT-50161 Kaunas, Lithuania"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, LT-50161 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1744-2932","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jurga","family":"Bernatoniene","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Drug Technology and Social Pharmacy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, LT-50161 Kaunas, Lithuania"},{"name":"Institute of Pharmaceutical Technologies, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical Academy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, LT-50161 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onano.2025.100245","article-title":"Transdermal Drug Delivery System: A Comprehensive Review of Innovative Strategies, Applications, and Regulatory Perspectives","volume":"24","author":"Crasta","year":"2025","journal-title":"OpenNano"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"67","article-title":"Transdermal Drug Delivery Systems: A Focused Review of the Physical Methods of Permeation Enhancement","volume":"14","author":"Vaseem","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. 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