{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,2]],"date-time":"2026-08-02T04:47:18Z","timestamp":1785646038507,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,31]],"date-time":"2026-07-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785456000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012131","name":"Department of Science and Technology of Liaoning Province","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2025-MSLH-819"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025-MSLH-819"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012131","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["2025-MSLH-819"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025-MSLH-819"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02f09cx53","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Introduction\/Objectives: Temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis (TMJOA) causes pain, mandibular dysfunction, fibrocartilage degradation, and synovial inflammation. Current therapies are mainly palliative and limited by rapid intra-articular clearance and insufficient disease-modifying effects. This review summarizes injectable hydrogels for TMJOA as regenerative scaffolds, drug delivery systems, joint lubricants, and mechanical buffers. Methods: Relevant studies were identified from PubMed\/MEDLINE, Web of Science and Google Scholar using terms related to TMJOA, injectable hydrogels, intra-articular delivery, tissue engineering, cartilage repair, lubrication, viscosupplementation and mechanical buffering. Studies were selected if they addressed hydrogel design, biological function, mechanical performance, biosafety or translational evaluation. Results: Injectable hydrogels have been investigated mainly as bioactive regenerative scaffolds and acellular functional biomaterials. Bioactive systems may regulate inflammation and oxidative stress, deliver cells, exosomes, drugs or growth factors, and support fibrocartilage repair. Acellular systems primarily aim to improve intra-articular retention, lubrication, viscoelastic adaptation and mechanical buffering. However, current evidence remains largely preclinical, with limited validation of long-term residence, degradation behavior, TMJ-specific mechanical performance, repeat dosing, biosafety and functional outcomes. Conclusions: Injectable hydrogels represent promising multifunctional platforms for TMJOA treatment. Cell-, exosome-, and growth factor-loaded systems show regenerative potential but face manufacturing, safety, regulatory, and long-term validation challenges. Acellular multifunctional hydrogels may be more feasible for near-term translation. Clinical Significance: Injectable hydrogels may provide minimally invasive, locally sustained treatment for TMJOA by integrating symptom control, microenvironment modulation, and mechanical adaptation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics18080949","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,31]],"date-time":"2026-07-31T10:11:38Z","timestamp":1785492698000},"page":"949","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Injectable Hydrogels for the Treatment of Temporomandibular Joint Osteoarthritis: From Tissue-Engineering Scaffolds to Joint Lubricants and Mechanical Buffers"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Chen","family":"Huang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthodontics, Clinical Medical Research Center of Orthodontic Disease, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, No. 117 Nanjing North Street, Heping District, Shenyang 110002, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-2185-5917","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yang","family":"Yuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthodontics, Clinical Medical Research Center of Orthodontic Disease, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, No. 117 Nanjing North Street, Heping District, Shenyang 110002, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-8602-1473","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhuofan","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthodontics, Clinical Medical Research Center of Orthodontic Disease, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, No. 117 Nanjing North Street, Heping District, Shenyang 110002, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xu","family":"Feng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthodontics, Clinical Medical Research Center of Orthodontic Disease, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, No. 117 Nanjing North Street, Heping District, Shenyang 110002, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2255-2573","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bowen","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthodontics, Clinical Medical Research Center of Orthodontic Disease, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, No. 117 Nanjing North Street, Heping District, Shenyang 110002, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4640-3396","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yi","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthodontics, Clinical Medical Research Center of Orthodontic Disease, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, No. 117 Nanjing North Street, Heping District, Shenyang 110002, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bioadv.2024.214162","article-title":"A mini-invasive injectable hydrogel for temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis: Its pleiotropic effects and multiple pathways in cartilage regeneration","volume":"169","author":"Xu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biomater. Adv."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, X., Pan, X., Xiong, X., Zhao, Z., and Cen, X. (2022). Drug delivery systems for treatment of temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis. Front. Pharmacol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.1054703"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joca.2020.12.016","article-title":"Initiation and progression of dental-stimulated temporomandibular joints osteoarthritis","volume":"29","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Osteoarthr. Cartil."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.berh.2009.08.013","article-title":"Non-pharmacological approaches for the treatment of osteoarthritis","volume":"24","author":"Rannou","year":"2010","journal-title":"Best Pract. Res. Clin. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joca.2022.11.005","article-title":"Pharmaceutical treatment of osteoarthritis","volume":"31","author":"Richard","year":"2023","journal-title":"Osteoarthr. Cartil."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.teb.2022.0065","article-title":"Recent advances in animal models, diagnosis, and treatment of temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis","volume":"29","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Tissue Eng. Part B Rev."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2579","DOI":"10.1039\/D3BM01687K","article-title":"Applications of hydrogels in tissue-engineered repairing of temporomandibular joint diseases","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jddst.2025.107448","article-title":"Functionalized nanodiamonds in dentistry: Multifunctional frontiers for oral and maxillofacial regeneration","volume":"114","author":"Taymour","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jddst.2026.108141","article-title":"Halloysite nanotubes-based nanomaterials as drug carriers and scaffolds for personalized oral and maxillofacial applications","volume":"119","author":"Atia","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ding, Q., Zhang, S., Liu, X., Zhao, Y., Yang, J., Chai, G., Wang, N., Ma, S., Liu, W., and Ding, C. (2023). Hydrogel tissue bioengineered scaffolds in bone repair: A review. Molecules, 28.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28207039"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.teb.2025.0073","article-title":"Research Progress in Tissue Engineering of Temporomandibular Joint Condylar Cartilage","volume":"32","author":"Ma","year":"2025","journal-title":"Tissue Eng. Part B Rev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1038\/s41415-022-5082-0","article-title":"Temporomandibular joint anatomy, function and clinical relevance: Temporomandibular joint anatomy, function and clinical relevance","volume":"233","author":"Wilkie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br. Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"199","article-title":"Temporomandibular joint: Review of anatomy and clinical implications","volume":"67","author":"Iturriaga","year":"2023","journal-title":"Dent. Clin."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-009-9659-4","article-title":"Temporomandibular joint: Disorders, treatments, and biomechanics","volume":"37","author":"Ingawale","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joms.2013.08.022","article-title":"Inflammation is more distinct in temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis compared to the knee joint","volume":"72","author":"Vos","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"14","article-title":"Functional anatomy of the temporomandibular joint and pathologic changes in temporomandibular disease progression: A narrative review","volume":"17","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Korean Dent. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1943","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcms.2018.08.007","article-title":"Efficacy of viscosupplementation with hyaluronic acid in temporomandibular disorders: A systematic review","volume":"46","author":"Ferreira","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Craniomaxillofac. Surg."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Derwich, M., Mitus-Kenig, M., and Pawlowska, E. (2021). Orally administered NSAIDs\u2014General characteristics and usage in the treatment of temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis\u2014A narrative review. Pharmaceuticals, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph14030219"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0528.1975.tb00284.x","article-title":"Characteristics of a group of patients with temporomandibular joint disorders","volume":"3","year":"1975","journal-title":"Community Dent. Oral Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, E., Qi, Z., Cao, Y., Li, R., Wu, J., Tang, R., Gao, Y., Du, R., and Liu, M. (2025). Gels as Promising Delivery Systems: Physicochemical Property Characterization and Recent Applications. Pharmaceutics, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics17020249"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141731","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2023.141731","article-title":"Biomimetic construction of a lubricious hydrogel with robust mechanics via polymer chains interpenetration and entanglement for TMJ disc replacement","volume":"460","author":"Hou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2995","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm.b.34629","article-title":"Acellular matrix hydrogel for repair of the temporomandibular joint disc","volume":"108","author":"Liang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part B Appl. Biomater."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaaq1802","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aaq1802","article-title":"Tissue engineering toward temporomandibular joint disc regeneration","volume":"10","author":"Vapniarsky","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"025003","DOI":"10.1088\/1758-5090\/8\/2\/025003","article-title":"Micro-precise spatiotemporal delivery system embedded in 3D printing for complex tissue regeneration","volume":"8","author":"Tarafder","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biofabrication"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1390","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-56727-8","article-title":"Neurovascularization inhibiting dual responsive hydrogel for alleviating the progression of osteoarthritis","volume":"16","author":"Qin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nedeljkovic, M., Rosic, G., Selakovic, D., Milanovic, J., Arnaut, A., Vasiljevic, M., Jovicic, N., Veljkovic, L., Milanovic, P., and Stevanovic, M. (2026). Scaffolds and Stem Cells Show Promise for TMJ Regeneration: A Systematic Review. Bioengineering, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering13020169"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2402923","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202402923","article-title":"Controlled Release of Human Dental Pulp Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes from Hydrogels Attenuates Temporomandibular Joint Osteoarthritis","volume":"14","author":"Tian","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, S., Qiu, Y., Qu, L., Wang, Q., and Zhou, Q. (2022). Hydrogels for treatment of different degrees of osteoarthritis. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2022.858656"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"0073","DOI":"10.34133\/bmr.0073","article-title":"Hyaluronic acid-based microparticles with lubrication and anti-inflammation for alleviating temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis","volume":"28","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomater. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153930","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2024.153930","article-title":"Dental pulp stem cells-loaded kartogenin-modified hydrogel microspheres with chondrocyte differentiation property for cartilage repair","volume":"496","author":"Song","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jormas.2021.08.003","article-title":"Systematic review of studies on drug-delivery systems for management of temporomandibular-joint osteoarthritis","volume":"123","author":"Barry","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Stomatol. Oral Maxillofac. Surg."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"015004","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-605X\/ac367f","article-title":"Therapeutic application of 3B-PEG injectable hydrogel\/Nell-1 composite system to temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biomed. Mater."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sikora, M., Czerwi\u0144ska-Niezabitowska, B., Ch\u0119ci\u0144ski, M.A., Sielski, M., and Chlubek, D. (2020). Short-term effects of intra-articular hyaluronic acid administration in patients with temporomandibular joint disorders. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9061749"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"3596","article-title":"Biomimetic injectable hydrogel microspheres with enhanced lubrication and controllable drug release for the treatment of osteoarthritis","volume":"6","author":"Han","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bioact. Mater."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.3c01160","article-title":"Biomimetic injectable hydrogel based on methacrylate-modified silk fibroin embedded with kartogenin for superficial cartilage regeneration","volume":"10","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140823","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2025.140823","article-title":"Development of a dual-responsive injectable Gel-MA\/F127DA hydrogel for enhanced cartilage regeneration in osteoarthritis: Harnessing MMP-triggered and mechanical stress-induced release of therapeutic agents","volume":"304","author":"Sun","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rokaya, D., Selvido, D.I., Kathayat, G., Atia, G., and Srinameepong, V. (2026). 3D printing technology for fabrication of fiber-based natural biomaterials for tissue engineering and regeneration. Harnessing Fiber-Based Natural Biomaterials, Woodhead Publishing.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-443-34248-6.00001-8"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16790","DOI":"10.1007\/s10853-021-06338-7","article-title":"Interplay of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and tissue engineering: A review on clinical aspects of ROS-responsive biomaterials","volume":"56","author":"Tyagi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2024.113125","article-title":"Bioinspired nanozyme-reinforced hydrogels with free radical scavenging capability for treating temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis","volume":"244","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1038\/nmeth.3839","article-title":"A practical guide to hydrogels for cell culture","volume":"13","author":"Caliari","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Methods"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"701","article-title":"A bioinspired and high-strengthed hydrogel. for regeneration of perforated temporomandibular joint disc: Construction and pleiotropic immunomodulatory effects","volume":"25","author":"Xu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Bioact. Mater."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e202400653","DOI":"10.1002\/biot.202400653","article-title":"Bioactive functionalized chitosan thermo-responsive hydrogels as promising platforms for therapeutic, regenerative oral, and maxillofacial applications","volume":"20","author":"Alkandari","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biotechnol. J."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22090","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-04938-w","article-title":"Impact of craniofacial skeletal characteristics on temporomandibular joint\u2019s articular disc position in temporomandibular disorders","volume":"15","author":"Osama","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"14","article-title":"Injectable polymeric nanoparticle hydrogel system for long-term anti-inflammatory effect to treat osteoarthritis","volume":"7","author":"Seo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bioact. Mater."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-007-9401-z","article-title":"Lubrication of the temporomandibular joint","volume":"36","author":"Tanaka","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1111\/joor.13608","article-title":"Gelatin methacryloyl hydrogel with and without dental pulp stem cells for TMJ regeneration: An in vivo study in rabbits","volume":"51","author":"Monteiro","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Oral Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2402444","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202402444","article-title":"Organoids of musculoskeletal system for disease modeling, drug screening, and regeneration","volume":"14","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2203195","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202203195","article-title":"Integrated cascade nanozyme remodels chondrocyte inflammatory microenvironment in temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis via inhibiting ROS-NF-\u03baB and MAPK pathways","volume":"12","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1001\/archotol.1982.00790500038009","article-title":"Treatment of patients with temporomandibular joint and other facial pain by otolaryngologists","volume":"108","author":"Marbach","year":"1982","journal-title":"Arch. Otolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1177\/0022034520901710","article-title":"DPSCs attenuate experimental progressive TMJ arthritis by inhibiting the STAT1 pathway","volume":"99","author":"Cui","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1186\/s43556-026-00435-2","article-title":"Reduced cartilage matrix stiffness in temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis impairs the functions of superficial zone chondrocytes via downregulation of CREB5-PLPP3 signaling","volume":"7","author":"Yu","year":"2026","journal-title":"Mol. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtbio.2025.102103","article-title":"Dual-functional ROS-responsive hydrogel alleviates temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis by enhancing cartilage repair and mitigating inflammation","volume":"33","author":"Kuang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mater. Today Bio"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112688","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2024.112688","article-title":"Targeting G6PD to mitigate cartilage inflammation in TMJOA: The NOX4-ROS-MAPK axis as a therapeutic avenue","volume":"139","author":"Lin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.archoralbio.2017.07.013","article-title":"A review of in-vitro fibrocartilage tissue engineered therapies with a focus on the temporomandibular joint","volume":"83","author":"Lowe","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arch. Oral Biol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1002\/term.3302","article-title":"Regeneration of temporomandibular joint using in vitro human stem cells: A review","volume":"16","author":"Gong","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Tissue Eng. Regen. Med."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, C., Yao, Y., Wang, L., Sun, P., Feng, J., and Wu, G. (2021). Human salivary histatin-1-functionalized gelatin methacrylate hydrogels promote the regeneration of cartilage and subchondral bone in temporomandibular joints. Pharmaceuticals, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph14050484"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1443","DOI":"10.1177\/00220345251363561","article-title":"Activating Endogenous Condylar Stem Cells to Enhance TMJ Repair","volume":"104","author":"Tuwatnawanit","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2404396","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202404396","article-title":"Microgel encapsulated mesoporous silica nanoparticles for releasing Wnt16 to synergistically treat temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis","volume":"11","author":"Zhu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Trindade, D., Cordeiro, R., Jos\u00e9, H.C., \u00c2ngelo, D.F., Alves, N., and Moura, C. (2021). Biological treatments for temporomandibular joint disc disorders: Strategies in tissue engineering. Biomolecules, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom11070933"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.1038\/s41570-022-00420-7","article-title":"Chemical strategies to engineer hydrogels for cell culture","volume":"6","author":"Lou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Chem."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"070802","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4042201","article-title":"Considerations for translation of tissue engineered fibrocartilage from bench to bedside","volume":"141","author":"Donahue","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Biomech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1002\/bit.22361","article-title":"Hydrogels as extracellular matrix mimics for 3D cell culture","volume":"103","author":"Tibbitt","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Bioeng."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101720","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jebdp.2022.101720","article-title":"Effectiveness of intra-articular injections of sodium hyaluronate, corticosteroids, platelet-rich plasma on temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis: A systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"22","author":"Xie","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Evid.-Based Dent. Pract."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1518","DOI":"10.1111\/joor.13571","article-title":"Hyaluronic acid injections for pain relief and functional improvement in patients with temporomandibular disorders: An umbrella review of systematic reviews","volume":"50","author":"Agostini","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Oral Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miranda, D.G., Ramos, L.D.P., Lopes, N.F.D.S., Silva, N.V.D.H.F., Soares, C.P., Rodrigues, F.P., Morais, V.P., Sani-Taiariol, T., Baldan, M.R., and Vasconcellos, L.M.R. (2024). Ketoprofen associated with hyaluronic acid hydrogel for temporomandibular disorder treatment: An in vitro study. Gels, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels10120811"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26828","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-77325-6","article-title":"Therapeutic potential of hyaluronic acid hydrogel combined with bone marrow stem cells-conditioned medium on arthritic rats\u2019 TMJs","volume":"14","author":"Assi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2100848","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202100848","article-title":"Viscoelastic cell microenvironment: Hydrogel-based strategy for recapitulating dynamic ECM mechanics","volume":"31","author":"Ma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Y., Huang, C., Zheng, H., Meng, Z., Heng, B.C., Zhou, T., Jiang, S., and Wei, Y. (2022). Superwettable and injectable GelMA-MSC microspheres promote cartilage repair in temporomandibular joints. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2022.1026911"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijom.2016.04.022","article-title":"Alloplastic total temporomandibular joint replacements: Do they perform like natural joints? Prospective cohort study with a historical control","volume":"45","author":"Leiggener","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2041731418776514","DOI":"10.1177\/2041731418776514","article-title":"Intra-articular biomaterials-assisted delivery to treat temporomandibular joint disorders","volume":"9","author":"Dashnyam","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Tissue Eng."}],"container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/18\/8\/949\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,2]],"date-time":"2026-08-02T04:23:15Z","timestamp":1785644595000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/18\/8\/949"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,31]]},"references-count":70,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["pharmaceutics18080949"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pharmaceutics18080949","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4923"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4923","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,31]]}}}