{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T23:02:53Z","timestamp":1790290973058,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785715200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Khon Kaen University, Thailand","award":["RP66-38"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RP66-38"]}]},{"award":["RP66-38"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RP66-38"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03cq4gr50","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background:\u00a0Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz is a medicinal plant widely used in traditional Thai medicine, reported to exhibit anti-inflammatory activity. However, its topical use is limited by the poor dermal delivery of its active compounds. This study aimed to develop and characterize a topical niosomal delivery system containing O. indicum leaf extract to enhance permeation through Strat-M\u00ae membrane and anti-inflammatory activity. Methods: Extract-loaded niosomes were prepared via thin-film hydration using non-ionic surfactants and cholesterol. The developed niosomes were evaluated for their physicochemical properties, in vitro release and in vitro permeation, stability, and anti-inflammatory effects in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Results: The optimal formulation consisted of a phosphate buffer at pH 5.5, Span 60, cholesterol, 0.5% (w\/v) extract, and 10% propylene glycol, with the extract added during the hydration step. The optimal formulation showed a high encapsulation efficiency (&gt;70% (total phenolics) and &gt;90% (total flavonoids), a nano-sized particle size of approximately 100\u2013200 nm with a narrow size distribution, and a zeta potential within the acceptable value (\u2264\u221230 mV). The successful incorporation of the extract into niosome bilayers was confirmed by FTIR spectroscopy. The niosomal formulation demonstrated a significantly more sustained and controlled release of total phenolics and flavonoids, including enhanced permeation of phenolic compounds across the Strat-M\u00ae membrane, compared to the extract solution. Formulations containing 0.3\u20130.5% extract remained physically stable, maintaining encapsulation efficiency, particle size, and zeta potential under thermal stress conditions. Significantly, niosomes loaded with 0.5% extract exhibited the greatest inhibition of nitric oxide production in RAW 264.7 cells without cytotoxicity. Conclusions: These findings are based on in vitro membrane permeation and cell-based assays; further ex vivo or in vivo skin studies are required to confirm topical anti-inflammatory efficacy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics18080955","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T17:26:52Z","timestamp":1785778012000},"page":"955","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Niosomal Encapsulation of Oroxylum indicum Leaf Extract for Topical Anti-Inflammatory Application"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Pattaraphorn","family":"Panomai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Health Science and Aesthetic Program, Faculty of Science and Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Krungthep, Bangkok 10120, Thailand"},{"name":"Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40002, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-2019-1254","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nattawadee","family":"Kanpipit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40002, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7375-7093","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Natsajee","family":"Nualkaew","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacognosy and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40002, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4878-7696","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Suthasinee","family":"Thapphasaraphong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40002, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nik Salleh, N.N.H., Othman, F.A., Kamarudin, N.A., and Tan, S.C. (2020). The Biological Activities and Therapeutic Potentials of Baicalein Extracted from Oroxylum indicum: A Systematic Review. Molecules, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25235677"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.4103\/0250-474X.98981","article-title":"A Review on the Taxonomy, Ethnobotany, Chemistry and Pharmacology of Oroxylum indicum Vent","volume":"73","author":"Harminder","year":"2011","journal-title":"Indian J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nguyen, H.L., Sae-Eaw, A., Tran, D.Q., Prinyawiwatkul, W., and Chulikhit, Y. (2025). A Systematic Review of Evidence-Based Health Benefits of Oroxylum indicum and Its Functional Food Potential. Foods, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods14203465"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2014.12.027","article-title":"Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz, an Important Asian Traditional Medicine: From Traditional Uses to Scientific Data for Its Commercial Exploitation","volume":"161","author":"Dinda","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Panomai, P., Thapphasaraphong, S., and Nualkaew, N. (2024). A Comparative Study of Two Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz. Phenotypes Based on Phytochemicals and Antioxidant Effects, and the Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Leaf and Pod Extracts. Plants, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants13152110"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, L., Wen, K.-S., Ruan, X., Zhao, Y.-X., Wei, F., and Wang, Q. (2018). Response of Plant Secondary Metabolites to Environmental Factors. Molecules, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules23040762"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/KEM.859.232","article-title":"Niosomes Encapsulated Anthocyanins Complex Loaded in a Topical Oral Gel","volume":"859","author":"Limsitthichaikoon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Key Eng. Mater."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1467","DOI":"10.1039\/D3NA01016C","article-title":"Preparation and Evaluation of a Niosomal Delivery System Containing G. Mangostana Extract and Study of Its Anti-Acanthamoeba Activity","volume":"6","author":"Sangkana","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nanoscale Adv."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.30574\/gscbps.2024.29.1.0341","article-title":"Niosomes: A Promising Approach for Targeted Drug Delivery","volume":"29","author":"Deulkar","year":"2024","journal-title":"GSC Biol. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1208\/s12249-015-0376-z","article-title":"Topical Niosome Gel of Zingiber Cassumunar Roxb. Extract for Anti-Inflammatory Activity Enhanced Skin Permeation and Stability of Compound D","volume":"17","author":"Priprem","year":"2016","journal-title":"AAPS PharmSciTech"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Witika, B.A., Bassey, K.E., Demana, P.H., Siwe-Noundou, X., and Poka, M.S. (2022). Current Advances in Specialised Niosomal Drug Delivery: Manufacture, Characterization and Drug Delivery Applications. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23179668"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"100217","article-title":"The Characteristics and Biological Activity Enhancements of Melatonin Encapsulations for Skin Care Product Applications","volume":"6","author":"Phanphothong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm. X"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kanpipit, N., Nualkaew, N., Kiatponglarp, W., Priprem, A., and Thapphasaraphong, S. (2022). Development of a Sericin Hydrogel to Deliver Anthocyanins from Purple Waxy Corn Cob (Zea mays L.) Extract and In Vitro Evaluation of Anti-Inflammatory Effects. Pharmaceutics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics14030577"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2019.04.086","article-title":"A Novel Niosome Formulation for Encapsulation of Anthocyanins and Modelling Intestinal Transport","volume":"293","author":"Akay","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, B., Huang, Y., Chen, Z., Ye, J., Xu, H., Chen, W., and Long, X. (2019). Niosomal Nanocarriers for Enhanced Skin Delivery of Quercetin with Functions of Anti-Tyrosinase and Antioxidant. Molecules, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules24122322"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7937","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S268846","article-title":"In Vitro Characterization and Release Studies of Combined Nonionic Surfactant-Based Vesicles for the Prolonged Delivery of an Immunosuppressant Model Drug","volume":"15","author":"Rasul","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kanpipit, N., Nualkaew, N., and Thapphasaraphong, S. (2022). The Potential of Purple Waxy Corn Cob (Zea mays L.) Extract Loaded-Sericin Hydrogel for Anti-Hyperpigmentation, UV Protection and Anti-Aging Properties as Topical Product Applications. Pharmaceuticals, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph16010035"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2022.e12369","article-title":"The Effect of Noisome Preparation Methods in Encapsulating 5-Fluorouracil and Real Time Cell Assay against HCT-116 Colon Cancer Cell Line","volume":"8","author":"Ugorji","year":"2022","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Camilleri, D., Attard, K., and Lia, F. (2025). Formulation and Evaluation of Liposome-Encapsulated Phenolic Compounds from Olive Mill Waste: Insights into Encapsulation Efficiency, Antioxidant, and Cytotoxic Activities. Molecules, 30.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202505.0987.v1"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.2174\/1567201811666140723115852","article-title":"Stability Studies on Piroxicam Encapsulated Niosomes","volume":"12","author":"Ertekin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.3390\/biophysica3010011","article-title":"A Brief Review of FT-IR Spectroscopy Studies of Sphingolipids in Human Cells","volume":"3","author":"Faramarzi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biophysica"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1007\/s11694-017-9642-y","article-title":"Characterization and Effect of Extraction Solvents on the Yield and Total Phenolic Content from Vernonia amygdalina Leaves","volume":"12","author":"Alara","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Food Meas. Charact."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2854217","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/2854217","article-title":"Molecular Spectroscopic (FTIR and UV-Vis) and Hyphenated Chromatographic (UHPLC-qTOF-MS) Analysis and In Vitro Bioactivities of the Momordica balsamina Leaf Extract","volume":"2021","author":"Mabasa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biochem. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"69","article-title":"Formulation, Evaluation and Characterization of Hydrochlorothiazide Niosomes","volume":"4","author":"Shaik","year":"2024","journal-title":"Future J. Pharm. Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2026, July 04). Quality of Herbal Medicinal Products\/Traditional Herbal Medicinal Products\u2014Scientific Guideline | European Medicines Agency (EMA). Available online: https:\/\/www.ema.europa.eu\/en\/quality-herbal-medicinal-products-traditional-herbal-medicinal-products-scientific-guideline."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2008.05.031","article-title":"Effect of Some Formulation Parameters on Flurbiprofen Encapsulation and Release Rates of Niosomes Prepared from Proniosomes","volume":"361","author":"Mokhtar","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1208\/s12249-008-9121-1","article-title":"Effect of Charged and Non-Ionic Membrane Additives on Physicochemical Properties and Stability of Niosomes","volume":"9","author":"Junyaprasert","year":"2008","journal-title":"AAPS PharmSciTech"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2009.04.020","article-title":"Formulation and in Vitro Assessment of Minoxidil Niosomes for Enhanced Skin Delivery","volume":"377","author":"Balakrishnan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1681","DOI":"10.1208\/s12249-018-0966-7","article-title":"Topical Niosome Gel Containing an Anthocyanin Complex: A Potential Oral Wound Healing in Rats","volume":"19","author":"Priprem","year":"2018","journal-title":"AAPS PharmSciTech"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1208\/s12249-012-9783-6","article-title":"Propylene Glycol Liposomes as a Topical Delivery System for Miconazole Nitrate: Comparison with Conventional Liposomes","volume":"13","author":"Elmoslemany","year":"2012","journal-title":"AAPS PharmSciTech"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.3109\/10731199.2011.611476","article-title":"Effect of Surfactants on the Characteristics of Fluconazole Niosomes for Enhanced Cutaneous Delivery","volume":"39","author":"Gupta","year":"2011","journal-title":"Artif. Cells Blood Substit. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100837","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtbio.2023.100837","article-title":"Current Advances in Niosomes Applications for Drug Delivery and Cancer Treatment","volume":"23","author":"Moammeri","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Today Bio"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kosmulski, M., and Kalbarczyk, M. (2023). Zeta Potential of Nanosilica in 50% Aqueous Ethylene Glycol and in 50% Aqueous Propylene Glycol. Molecules, 28.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28031335"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2014.04.015","article-title":"Nano-Niosomes as Nanoscale Drug Delivery Systems: An Illustrated Review","volume":"185","author":"Moghassemi","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"6847971","article-title":"Niosome: A Promising Nanocarrier for Natural Drug Delivery through Blood-Brain Barrier","volume":"2018","author":"Gharbavi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Tietje, C., and Brouder, A. (2010). International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use. Handbook of Transnational Economic Governance Regimes, Brill | Nijhoff."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mawazi, S.M., Ge, Y., and Widodo, R.T. (2025). Niosome Preparation Techniques and Structure\u2014An Illustrated Review. Pharmaceutics, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics17010067"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101854","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jddst.2020.101854","article-title":"Development of Trans-Ferulic Acid Niosome: An Optimization and an In-Vivo Study","volume":"59","author":"Rezaeiroshan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2010.08.003","article-title":"Encapsulation of Polyphenols\u2014A Review","volume":"21","author":"Fang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bayer, I.S. (2023). Controlled Drug Release from Nanoengineered Polysaccharides. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics15051364"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"23","article-title":"Niosomal Drug Delivery for Transdermal Targeting: Recent Advances","volume":"4","author":"Muzzalupo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Res. Rep. Transdermal Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2018.06.012","article-title":"Strat-M\u00ae Synthetic Membrane: Permeability Comparison to Human Cadaver Skin","volume":"547","author":"Haq","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101487","DOI":"10.1016\/j.afres.2025.101487","article-title":"Development and Characterization of Nano-Niosomal Carriers for Galium verum Extract in Fermented Milk: Encapsulation Efficiency and Functional Stability","volume":"5","author":"Mirzabagherian","year":"2025","journal-title":"Appl. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burrini, N., D\u2019Ambrosio, M., Gentili, M., Giaquinto, R., Settimelli, V., Luceri, C., Cirri, M., and Francesconi, O. (2023). Niosomes Functionalized with a Synthetic Carbohydrate Binding Agent for Mannose-Targeted Doxorubicin Delivery. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics15010235"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1002\/fsh3.12073","article-title":"Guidelines for Anti-Inflammatory Assays in RAW264.7 Cells","volume":"3","author":"Wu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Saf. Health"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105523","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fbio.2024.105523","article-title":"Anti-Inflammatory Potential of Oroxylum indicum Flavonoids: Effects of Traditional Grilling on Aglycone Flavonoid Content and Activity against Urban Dust-Induced Inflammation","volume":"62","author":"Choonong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Biosci."}],"container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/18\/8\/955\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T17:27:42Z","timestamp":1785778062000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/18\/8\/955"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["pharmaceutics18080955"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pharmaceutics18080955","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4923"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4923","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]]}}}