{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T00:35:58Z","timestamp":1790728558582,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":165,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,6]],"date-time":"2026-08-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785974400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the Nature Science Foundation of Guangdong Province","award":["2024A1515030269"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024A1515030269"]}]},{"name":"Characteristic and Innovative Projects of Common Colleges in Guangdong Province","award":["2024KTSCX071"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024KTSCX071"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100021171","name":"Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2025A1515011805"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025A1515011805"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100021171","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003785","name":"Medical Scientific Research Foundation of Guangdong Province of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["A2020131"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["A2020131"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003785","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["82401178; 82001298"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82401178; 82001298"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["82401178; 82001298"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82401178; 82001298"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The inappropriate utilization of traditional antimicrobials has expedited the development of multidrug-resistant bacterial strains, thereby generating an urgent demand for innovative, safe, and efficacious alternatives. Graphene oxide (GO), characterized by its distinctive physicochemical properties, holds significant potential for a wide range of biomedical applications, such as the prevention of oral diseases, periodontal therapy, control of gastrointestinal infections, wound healing, antibacterial therapy for the respiratory tract, and management of urogenital infections. The antimicrobial mechanisms of GO include physical disruption of microbial membranes, induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and its role as a photosensitizer. Moreover, improving the dispersion, stability, release behavior, and reusability of GO-based composites can markedly enhance their effectiveness. The antimicrobial activity of GO is further modulated by its physicochemical properties, synthesis methods, bacterial characteristics, and environmental conditions, while potential synergistic or antagonistic interactions remain to be elucidated. This review synthesizes recent advancements in GO-based antimicrobial strategies, elucidates key mechanisms and influencing factors, and addresses major challenges and future research directions, with the objective of facilitating the clinical translation of GO as a next-generation antimicrobial material.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics18080966","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,6]],"date-time":"2026-08-06T13:03:27Z","timestamp":1786021407000},"page":"966","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Exploring the Antimicrobial Efficacy of Graphene Oxide: Key Mechanisms and Future Directions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Yuezi","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Stomatology Hospital, School of Stomatology, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhihong","family":"Ke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of General Surgery, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bilan","family":"Deng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Stomatology Hospital, School of Stomatology, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ying","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of General Surgery, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xundong","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of General Surgery, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aijie","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Stomatology Hospital, School of Stomatology, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Weihong","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of General Surgery, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaoli","family":"Feng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Stomatology Hospital, School of Stomatology, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2019.05.042","article-title":"Adverse effects of nanosilver on human health and the environment","volume":"94","author":"Rezvani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1038\/s42254-022-00422-w","article-title":"Controlling covalent chemistry on graphene oxide","volume":"4","author":"Guo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. 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