{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T10:14:19Z","timestamp":1788430459764,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787875200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Wei Gong Memorial Hospital","award":["WMH-114-005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["WMH-114-005"]}]},{"name":"Wei Gong Memorial Hospital","award":["WMH-114-006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["WMH-114-006"]}]},{"name":"Wei Gong Memorial Hospital","award":["WMH-115-005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["WMH-115-005"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) substantially affect quality of life. Previous studies have not evaluated whether the associations between early-life antibiotic exposure and the risks of ASD and ADHD differ according to the antibiotic agents administered during infancy. Methods: This nationwide case\u2013control study used Taiwan\u2019s National Health Insurance Research Database, Birth Reporting Database, and Maternal and Child Health Database. The cohort included 1,693,718 term neonates born between 2004 and 2015 and followed through to 2022. For ASD (n = 7265) and ADHD (n = 39,056) cases, antibiotic-exposed children were matched 1:1 with unexposed children based on sex, gestational age, birth weight, and birth year. Adjusted hazard ratios (aHRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were estimated using multivariable Cox proportional hazards models. Results: Oral antibiotic exposure was associated with lower ASD but higher ADHD risk, while parenteral exposure was associated with increased risks of both outcomes. Amoxicillin and erythromycin exposure during the first year of life were associated with lower ASD risk, whereas ampicillin exposure at 4\u201312 months was associated with higher ASD risk (all p \u2264 0.033). For ADHD, exposure to amoxicillin\/clavulanic acid, cefixime, ampicillin, and ampicillin\/sulbactam was associated with increased risk, whereas erythromycin, cephalexin, and sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim were associated with reduced risk (all p &lt; 0.047). Conclusions: Associations between early-life antibiotic exposure and the risks of ASD and ADHD varied according to antibiotic agents, route of administration, and timing of exposure. These findings may help explain inconsistencies among previous studies and inform antibiotic prescribing during infancy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics18091088","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T18:33:52Z","timestamp":1787942032000},"page":"1088","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Associations Between Early-Life Exposure to Different Antibiotic Agents and the Risks of Autism Spectrum Disorder and Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Nationwide Population-Based Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7401-856X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hao-Yuan","family":"Lee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nursing, Jen-Teh Junior College of Medicine, Nursing and Management, No. 79-9, Sha-Luen-Hu, Xi-Zhou Li, Hou-Loung Town, Miaoli 35664, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Wei Gong Memorial Hospital, Miaoli 35159, Taiwan"},{"name":"School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Fu Jen Catholic University, New Taipei 242062, Taiwan"},{"name":"Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, China Medical University Children\u2019s Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung 40447, Taiwan"},{"name":"Molecular Infectious Disease Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, Taoyuan 333423, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7347-0615","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yu-Chia","family":"Chang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Long Term Care, College of Health and Nursing, National Quemoy University, No. 1, University Road, Jinning Township, Kinmen County 892009, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Healthcare Administration, College of Medical and Health Science, Asia University, Taichung 41354, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4591-0924","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chyi-Liang","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Infectious Disease Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, Taoyuan 333423, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-8313-7070","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shu-Hua","family":"Ko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Wei Gong Memorial Hospital, Miaoli 35159, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-5940-0071","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yu-Ling","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Wei Gong Memorial Hospital, Miaoli 35159, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5647-8447","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shang-Po","family":"Shen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Neonatology, China Medical University Children\u2019s Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung 40447, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3010-2767","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yu-Lung","family":"Hsu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, China Medical University Children\u2019s Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung 40447, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Wen-Yuan","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, Wei Gong Memorial Hospital, Miaoli 35159, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung 404327, Taiwan"},{"name":"School of Medicine, College of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung 404328, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Hung-Chih","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Neonatology, China Medical University Children\u2019s Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung 40447, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Asia University Hospital, Asia University, Taichung 41300, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teleanu, R.I., Moldoveanu, E.-T., Niculescu, A.-G., Predescu, E., Roza, E., Tincu, I.F., Grumezescu, A.M., and Teleanu, D.M. 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