{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T05:20:20Z","timestamp":1788326420332,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":118,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]],"date-time":"2026-08-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788134400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100008693","name":"Gulf Medical University","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100008693","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02kaerj47","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are naturally occurring nanoscale carriers that have gained attention as next-generation platforms for diagnostics, site-specific drug delivery, and tissue engineering owing to their high biocompatibility, minimal immunogenicity, and capacity to transport diverse bioactive cargo across biological barriers. This review discusses the classification, biogenesis, molecular constituents, and therapeutic properties of the major EV subtypes such as exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies. It also highlights recent advances in EV engineering for cancer treatment, emphasizing immune modulation and targeted therapeutic delivery. Particular attention is given to plant-derived EVs, which have shown promise as scalable, low-toxicity nanotherapeutics with inherent bioactivity and effective drug delivery potential. Selected preclinical studies, recent patents, and ongoing clinical trials are also summarized, providing an up-to-date perspective on the clinical translation of EV-based technologies. Current challenges in EV isolation, characterization, scalable manufacturing, cargo loading, standardization, and regulatory approval, along with future directions for clinical translation, are summarized. Collectively, this review summarizes the growing applicability of EVs as next-generation platforms for precision medicine, targeted drug delivery, and regenerative therapies while identifying the major obstacles that must be addressed to facilitate their successful clinical translation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics18091098","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T01:05:26Z","timestamp":1788224726000},"page":"1098","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Extracellular Vesicles and Plant-Derived Vesicles in Cancer: From Mechanisms to Clinical Translation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1851-6673","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shery","family":"Jacob","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Gulf Medical University, Ajman P.O. Box 4184, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-7463-7088","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Namitha Raichel","family":"Varkey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Gulf Medical University, Ajman P.O. Box 4184, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2513-5879","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sai H. S.","family":"Boddu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Ajman University, Ajman P.O. Box 346, United Arab Emirates"},{"name":"Center of Medical and Bio-Allied Health Sciences Research, Ajman University, Ajman P.O. Box 346, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9375-528X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jigar N.","family":"Shah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutics, Institute of Pharmacy, Nirma University, Ahmedabad 382481, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ibrahim Mustafa","family":"Abdi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Gulf Medical University, Ajman P.O. Box 4184, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0525-4064","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rekha","family":"Rao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology, Hisar 125001, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2020.04.004","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles as drug delivery systems: Why and how?","volume":"159","author":"Elsharkasy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. 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