{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T09:04:02Z","timestamp":1789981442679,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789689600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Glaucoma is a chronic and progressive optic neuropathy in which sustained intraocular pressure (IOP) reduction remains the main therapeutic objective, while increasing attention is being directed toward neuroprotective strategies and improved ocular drug delivery. Conventional topical therapies are frequently limited by short precorneal residence time, poor ocular bioavailability, and the need for frequent administration. This narrative review examines nanoformulation-based strategies investigated for ocular drug delivery in glaucoma, ranging from metal-based nanoparticles, including gold, silver, zinc-, copper-, and iron-based systems, to advanced nanocarriers such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, nanoemulsions, nanosuspensions, dendrimers, cyclodextrin-based systems, and hydrogels. Particular attention is given to the relationship between nanocarrier composition, physicochemical characteristics, drug-loading and release properties, ocular retention and penetration, therapeutic effects, and the level of experimental evidence. The review further compares metal-based nanoparticles with non-metal-based nanocarriers, highlighting their respective advantages and limitations in terms of drug delivery, sustained ocular exposure, therapeutic potential, biocompatibility, toxicity, and translational relevance. Although several nanoformulation platforms have demonstrated promising results in preclinical studies, the available evidence remains heterogeneous and predominantly preclinical. Further research is needed to establish long-term ocular safety, optimize formulation characteristics, standardize evaluation methods, and determine the clinical relevance of these emerging delivery systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics18091181","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T08:03:47Z","timestamp":1789977827000},"page":"1181","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Nanoformulations for Ocular Drug Delivery in Glaucoma: From Metal-Based Nanoparticles to Advanced Nanocarriers"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-4803-3746","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ionut Iulian","family":"Lungu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, 700115 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Liviu","family":"Stafie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, 700115 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alina","family":"Stefanache","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, 700115 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David-Constantin","family":"Stefan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, 700115 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andreea","family":"Lungu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, 700115 Iasi, Romania"},{"name":"Institute of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, \u201cSt. Spiridon\u201d Emergency County Hospital, 700111 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-1372-707X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Georgiana-Elena","family":"Sarbu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, 700115 Iasi, Romania"},{"name":"Institute of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, \u201cSt. Spiridon\u201d Emergency County Hospital, 700111 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-6717-3196","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Liliana","family":"Savin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, 700115 Iasi, Romania"},{"name":"Department Orthopedics and Traumatology, Clinical Rehabilitation Hospital, 700661 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andreea","family":"Guraliuc","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, 700115 Iasi, Romania"},{"name":"Ophthalmology Clinic, Sf. Spiridon Emergency Clinical Hospital, 700111 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesca Cristiana","family":"Dohotariu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, 700115 Iasi, Romania"},{"name":"Ophthalmology Clinic, Sf. Spiridon Emergency Clinical Hospital, 700111 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4987-5049","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicoleta","family":"Anton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, 700115 Iasi, Romania"},{"name":"Ophthalmology Clinic, Sf. Spiridon Emergency Clinical Hospital, 700111 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1901","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2014.3192","article-title":"The Pathophysiology and Treatment of Glaucoma: A Review","volume":"311","author":"Weinreb","year":"2014","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2183","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)31469-1","article-title":"Glaucoma","volume":"390","author":"Jonas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2024.101261","article-title":"Addressing Neurodegeneration in Glaucoma: Mechanisms, Challenges, and Treatments","volume":"100","author":"Wareham","year":"2024","journal-title":"Prog. Retin. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coviltir, V., Burcel, M.G., Balt\u0103, G., and Marinescu, M.C. (2024). Interplay Between Ocular Ischemia and Glaucoma: An Update. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms252212400"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2081","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2014.05.013","article-title":"Global Prevalence of Glaucoma and Projections of Glaucoma Burden through 2040: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"121","author":"Tham","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1221","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(17)30393-5","article-title":"Global Causes of Blindness and Distance Vision Impairment 1990\u20132020: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"5","author":"Flaxman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Vision Loss Expert Group of the Global Burden of Disease Study, and GBD 2019 Blindness and Vision Impairment Collaborators (2024). Global Estimates on the Number of People Blind or Visually Impaired by Glaucoma: A Meta-Analysis from 2000 to 2020. Eye, 38, 2036\u20132046."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2012.07.001","article-title":"Critical Pathogenic Events Underlying Progression of Neurodegeneration in Glaucoma","volume":"31","author":"Calkins","year":"2012","journal-title":"Prog. Retin. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2016.12.005","article-title":"Neuroprotection for Glaucoma: Requirements for Clinical Translation","volume":"157","author":"Levin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1208\/s12249-023-02516-9","article-title":"Ocular Drug Delivery: A Comprehensive Review","volume":"24","author":"Ahmed","year":"2023","journal-title":"AAPS PharmSciTech"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"(2026, August 15). Frontiers|Topical Ophthalmic Administration: Can a Drug Instilled onto the Ocular Surface Exert an Effect at the Back of the Eye?. Available online: https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/journals\/drug-delivery\/articles\/10.3389\/fddev.2022.954771\/full."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akhter, M.H., Ahmad, I., Alshahrani, M.Y., Al-Harbi, A.I., Khalilullah, H., Afzal, O., Altamimi, A.S.A., Najib Ullah, S.N.M., Ojha, A., and Karim, S. (2022). Drug Delivery Challenges and Current Progress in Nanocarrier-Based Ocular Therapeutic System. Gels, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels8020082"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1007\/s12325-019-01163-6","article-title":"Nanotechnology for Medical and Surgical Glaucoma Therapy\u2014A Review","volume":"37","author":"Occhiutto","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Ther."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2021.02.017","article-title":"Nanomedicines for the Treatment of Glaucoma: Current Status and Future Perspectives","volume":"125","author":"Zhai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jani, H.S., Ranch, K., Pandya, R., Patel, Y., Boddu, S.H.S., Tiwari, A.K., Jacob, S., and Yasin, H.K.A. (2025). An Update on Novel Drug Delivery Systems for the Management of Glaucoma. Pharmaceutics, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics17081087"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, K.Y., Ashkar, S., Jain, S., Marchand, M., and Tran, S.D. (2023). Breaking Barriers in Eye Treatment: Polymeric Nano-Based Drug-Delivery System for Anterior Segment Diseases and Glaucoma. Polymers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym15061373"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577320","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S577320","article-title":"Innovative Applications of Nanomaterials in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Ocular Diseases: Targeted Delivery, Intelligent Therapy, Diagnostic Breakthroughs, and Synergistic Strategies with Stem Cells and Biomaterials","volume":"21","author":"Su","year":"2026","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wo\u017aniak-Budych, M.J., Staszak, K., and Staszak, M. (2023). Copper and Copper-Based Nanoparticles in Medicine\u2014Perspectives and Challenges. Molecules, 28.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28186687"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2010.09.016","article-title":"Engineered Superparamagnetic Mn0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 Nanoparticles as a Heat Shock Protein Induction Agent for Ocular Neuroprotection in Glaucoma","volume":"32","author":"Jeun","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109682","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbpc.2023.109682","article-title":"Copper Oxide Nanoparticles: In Vitro and in Vivo Toxicity, Mechanisms of Action and Factors Influencing Their Toxicology","volume":"271","author":"Sajjad","year":"2023","journal-title":"Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Part C Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dosmar, E., Walsh, J., Doyel, M., Bussett, K., Oladipupo, A., Amer, S., and Goebel, K. (2022). Targeting ocular drug delivery: An examination of local anatomy and current approaches. Bioengineering, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering9010041"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1186\/s42269-021-00639-2","article-title":"Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles by Using Aloe vera and Thuja orientalis Leaves Extract and Their Biological Activity: A Comprehensive Review","volume":"45","author":"Burange","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bull. Natl. Res. Cent."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1080\/17435889.2025.2608944","article-title":"Dual-Functional Nanoparticle Formulations for Simultaneous Intraocular Pressure Reduction and Neuroprotection in Glaucoma: A Review","volume":"21","author":"Xu","year":"2026","journal-title":"Nanomedicine"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1179\/1351000212Y.0000000033","article-title":"Oxidative Stress and Potential Applications of Free Radical Scavengers in Glaucoma","volume":"18","author":"Aslan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Redox Rep."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101988","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2021.101988","article-title":"Nicotinamide Provides Neuroprotection in Glaucoma by Protecting against Mitochondrial and Metabolic Dysfunction","volume":"43","author":"Tribble","year":"2021","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.2147\/EB.S472920","article-title":"Differences and Similarities Between Primary Open Angle Glaucoma and Primary Angle-Closure Glaucoma","volume":"16","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eye Brain"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"1","article-title":"European Glaucoma Society Terminology and Guidelines for Glaucoma, 5th Edition","volume":"105","author":"Spaeth","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2943","DOI":"10.1007\/s40123-023-00820-y","article-title":"Rho-Kinase Inhibitors as Emerging Targets for Glaucoma Therapy","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ophthalmol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1007\/s10384-018-0566-9","article-title":"Impact of the clinical use of ROCK inhibitor on the pathogenesis and treatment of glaucoma","volume":"62","author":"Honjo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1089\/jop.2017.0023","article-title":"Discovery and preclinical development of netarsudil, a novel ocular hypotensive agent for the treatment of glaucoma","volume":"34","author":"Lin","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S342975","article-title":"Exploring a Novel Fasudil-Phospholipid Complex Formulated as Liposomal Thermosensitive in Situ Gel for Glaucoma","volume":"17","author":"Khallaf","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1080\/10837450.2021.1999471","article-title":"Sustained Latanoprost Release from PEGylated Solid Lipid Nanoparticle-Laden Soft Contact Lens to Treat Glaucoma","volume":"27","author":"Dang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pharm. Dev. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1111\/ceo.13818","article-title":"Improvement in Inner Retinal Function in Glaucoma with Nicotinamide (Vitamin B3) Supplementation: A Crossover Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"48","author":"Hui","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jddst.2026.108167","article-title":"Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline)-coated solid lipid nanoparticles to enhance ocular delivery of timolol maleate: Design, fabrication and in vitro-in vivo evaluations","volume":"119","author":"Hosmani","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1355","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.biomac.2c01381","article-title":"Targeted Microglial Attenuation through Dendrimer\u2013Drug Conjugates Improves Glaucoma Neuroprotection","volume":"24","author":"Pitha","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e32602","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e32602","article-title":"Research Progress of Nano Delivery Systems for Intraocular Pressure Lowering Drugs","volume":"10","author":"Zhou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1080\/17425247.2024.2311119","article-title":"Recent Advances in Nanocrystal-Based Technologies Applied for Ocular Drug Delivery","volume":"21","author":"Geng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1320","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2007.11.023","article-title":"Doctor-Patient Communication, Health-Related Beliefs, and Adherence in Glaucoma Results from the Glaucoma Adherence and Persistency Study","volume":"115","author":"Friedman","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2433","DOI":"10.2147\/OPTH.S118409","article-title":"Systemic side effects of eye drops: A pharmacokinetic perspective","volume":"10","author":"Farkouh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, B., Bilsbury, E., Doherty, S., Teebagy, S., Wood, E., Su, W., Gao, G., and Lin, H. (2022). Ocular drug delivery: Advancements and innovations. Pharmaceutics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics14091931"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"e20945","article-title":"There\u2019s danger in the drops: Systemic effects of ophthalmic drops used to treat glaucoma","volume":"14","author":"Haga","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1089\/jop.2024.0029","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of a preservative-free latanoprost cationic emulsion in patients with open-angle glaucoma and concurrent ocular surface disease: A randomized phase 2 study","volume":"40","author":"Bacharach","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1599","DOI":"10.1038\/s41433-025-03646-z","article-title":"A phase III study comparing preservative-free latanoprost eye drop emulsion with preserved latanoprost in open-angle glaucoma or ocular hypertension","volume":"39","author":"Baudouin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1080\/20415990.2024.2346047","article-title":"Recent updates on ocular disease management with ophthalmic ointments","volume":"15","author":"Bisen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ther. Deliv."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3719","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.molpharmaceut.1c00650","article-title":"Ophthalmic Nanoemulsions: From Composition to Technological Processes and Quality Control","volume":"18","author":"Nartowski","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1002\/wnan.65","article-title":"Toxicity of nanomaterials to the eye","volume":"2","author":"Prow","year":"2010","journal-title":"Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Nanomed. Nanobiotechnol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1618","DOI":"10.1080\/09205063.2021.1927656","article-title":"Sustained bimatoprost release using gold nanoparticles laden contact lenses","volume":"32","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Biomater. Sci. Polym. Ed."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2023.123161","article-title":"Morphologic design of nanogold carriers for a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor: Effect on ocular retention and intraocular pressure","volume":"642","author":"Eissa","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8036","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.12-10743","article-title":"Effects of gold nanoparticles on endotoxin-induced uveitis in rats","volume":"53","author":"Pereira","year":"2012","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2019.01.004","article-title":"Effect of gold nanoparticles on timolol uptake and its release kinetics from contact lenses: In vitro and in vivo evaluation","volume":"86","author":"Maulvi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sonntag, T., Froemel, F., Stamer, W.D., Ohlmann, A., Fuchshofer, R., and Breunig, M. (2021). Distribution of Gold Nanoparticles in the Anterior Chamber of the Eye after Intracameral Injection for Glaucoma Therapy. Pharmaceutics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics13060901"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2020.108151","article-title":"Hyaluronic acid coating of gold nanoparticles for intraocular drug delivery: Evaluation of the surface properties and effect on their distribution","volume":"198","author":"Apaolaza","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1050","DOI":"10.1039\/D5PM00068H","article-title":"Emerging Drug Delivery Strategies for Glaucoma Therapy: Focus on Nanoparticles and Stimuli-Responsive Systems","volume":"2","author":"Kundu","year":"2025","journal-title":"RSC Pharm."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5533798","DOI":"10.1155\/ijbm\/5533798","article-title":"Protein-Based Silver Nanoparticles: Synthesis, Characterization, Administration, and Nanomedicine Applications","volume":"2025","author":"Hasan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Biomater."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1924","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.8b20222","article-title":"Metal-organic frameworks as drug delivery platforms for ocular therapeutics","volume":"11","author":"Cuenca","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al Sharabati, M., Sabouni, R., and Husseini, G.A. (2022). Biomedical Applications of Metal\u2212Organic Frameworks for Disease Diagnosis and Drug Delivery: A Review. Nanomaterials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano12020277"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2018.08.023","article-title":"Metal-organic frameworks, NH2-MIL-88(Fe), as carriers for ophthalmic delivery of brimonidine","volume":"79","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Viegas, C., Patr\u00edcio, A.B., Prata, J.M., Nadhman, A., Chintamaneni, P.K., and Fonte, P. (2023). Solid Lipid Nanoparticles vs. Nanostructured Lipid Carriers: A Comparative Review. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics15061593"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1093\/jpp\/rgae129","article-title":"Liposomal Topical Drug Administration Surpasses Alternative Methods in Glaucoma Therapeutics: A Novel Paradigm for Enhanced Treatment","volume":"77","author":"Nordin","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"123","article-title":"Nanomedicine for glaucoma: Liposomes provide sustained release of latanoprost in the eye","volume":"7","author":"Natarajan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2018.07.012","article-title":"Treatment merits of latanoprost\/thymoquinone-encapsulated liposome for glaucomatous rabbits","volume":"548","author":"Fahmy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rawat, P.S., Ravi, P.R., Khan, M.S., Mahajan, R.R., and Szeleszczuk, \u0141. (2024). Nebivolol Polymeric Nanoparticles-Loaded In Situ Gel for Effective Treatment of Glaucoma: Optimization, Physicochemical Characterization, and Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Evaluation. Nanomaterials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano14161347"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pham, J.H., Zhang, W., Le, K.-T.T., Kodati, B., Amankwa, C.E., DebNath, B., Johnson, G.A., Bui, T.T., Gitter, R.Y., and Gutierrez, J.P. (2025). Hybrid Molecule SA-10 and Its PLGA Nanosuspension Protect Human and Rodent Retinal Ganglion Cells against Neuronal Injury. BMC Neurosci., 26.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12868-025-00971-7"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2018.07.030","article-title":"Dendrimers: A Versatile Nanocarrier for Drug Delivery and Targeting","volume":"548","author":"Sherje","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130498","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2021.130498","article-title":"Nano-in-Nano Dendrimer Gel Particles for Efficient Topical Delivery of Antiglaucoma Drugs into the Eye","volume":"425","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000181","DOI":"10.1002\/adtp.202000181","article-title":"Dendrimer-Triamcinolone Acetonide Reduces Neuroinflammation, Pathological Angiogenesis, and Neuroretinal Dysfunction in Ischemic Retinopathy","volume":"4","author":"Cho","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Ther."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blaj, D.-A., Peptu, C.A., Danu, M., Harabagiu, V., Peptu, C., Bujor, A., Ochiuz, L., and Tuchilu\u0219, C.G. (2024). Enrofloxacin pharmaceutical formulations through the polymer-free electrospinning of \u03b2-cyclodextrin\u2013oligolactide derivatives. Pharmaceutics, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics16070903"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1089\/jop.2013.0060","article-title":"\u03b3-Cyclodextrin nanoparticle eye drops with dorzolamide: Effect on intraocular pressure in man","volume":"30","author":"Gudmundsdottir","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpb.2015.04.032","article-title":"New prostaglandin analog formulation for glaucoma treatment containing cyclodextrins for improved stability, solubility and ocular tolerance","volume":"95","author":"Guinchard","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fea, A.M., Novarese, C., Caselgrandi, P., and Boscia, G. (2022). Glaucoma Treatment and Hydrogel: Current Insights and State of the Art. Gels, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels8080510"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1186\/s43094-020-00128-9","article-title":"Extended Levobunolol Release from Eudragit Nanoparticle-Laden Contact Lenses for Glaucoma Therapy","volume":"6","author":"Kumar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Future J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2017.11.053","article-title":"Nanoparticle-Loaded Hydrogels as a Pathway for Enzyme-Triggered Drug Release in Ophthalmic Applications","volume":"536","author":"Tummala","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pei, K., Georgi, M., Hill, D., Lam, C.F.J., Wei, W., and Cordeiro, M.F. (2024). Review: Neuroprotective Nanocarriers in Glaucoma. Pharmaceuticals, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph17091190"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20406223221140392","DOI":"10.1177\/20406223221140392","article-title":"Current Situation and Progress of Drugs for Reducing Intraocular Pressure","volume":"13","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Chronic Dis."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtbio.2024.101229","article-title":"Nanomedicine in Glaucoma Treatment; Current Challenges and Future Perspectives","volume":"28","author":"Iqbal","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mater. Today Bio"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1653","DOI":"10.1080\/17435889.2025.2497748","article-title":"Applying Nanotechnology to Glaucoma Therapy: Past, Present, and Future","volume":"20","author":"Jiang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nanomedicine"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hua, Z., Shen, Y., and Zhou, X. (2026). Anatomically Guided Non-Viral CRISPR\/Cas9 Delivery in the Eye: Overcoming Barriers for Precision Gene Therapy. Pharmaceutics, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics18030282"}],"container-title":["Pharmaceutics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/18\/9\/1181\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T08:12:49Z","timestamp":1789978369000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-4923\/18\/9\/1181"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]]},"references-count":77,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["pharmaceutics18091181"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pharmaceutics18091181","relation":{},"ISSN":["1999-4923"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1999-4923","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]]}}}