{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T12:57:32Z","timestamp":1790081852127,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]],"date-time":"2022-01-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1643241600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Pharmacy"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) is an effective method for controlling acute pain, including postoperative pain in adults and in children from five years of age, pain resulting from labor, trauma, or other medical situations, or chronic and malignant pain. The treatment consists of a mini-computer-controlled infusion pump permitting the administration of on-demand, continuous, or combined doses of analgesic (mainly opioid) variations in response to therapy, which allows pain to be significantly controlled. Intravenous (IV)-PCA minimizes individual pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetic differences and is widely accepted as a reference method for mild or severe postoperative pain. IV-PCA is the most studied route of PCA; other delivery methods have been extensively reported in the literature. In addition, IV-PCA usually voids the gap between pain sensation and analgesic administration, permitting better recovery and fewer side effects. The most commonly observed complications are nausea and vomiting, pruritus, respiratory depression, sedation, confusion and urinary retention. However, human factors such as pharmacy preparation and device programming can also be involved in the occurrence of these complications, while device failure is much less of an issue.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmacy10010022","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]],"date-time":"2022-01-27T22:00:56Z","timestamp":1643320856000},"page":"22","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":47,"title":["Clinical Update on Patient-Controlled Analgesia for Acute Postoperative Pain"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0298-9882","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cyrus","family":"Motamed","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of anesthesia, Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, 94080 Villejuif, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(76)92910-X","article-title":"Apparatus for patient-controlled administration of intravenous narcotics during labour","volume":"1","author":"Evans","year":"1976","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"906","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(76)92122-X","article-title":"Letter: Patient-controlled intravenous narcotic administration during labour","volume":"1","author":"Evans","year":"1976","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"146","article-title":"Patient-controlled drug delivery for acute postoperative pain management: A review of current and emerging technologies","volume":"33","author":"Viscusi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Reg. Anesth. Pain Med."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1976","DOI":"10.1097\/j.pain.0000000000001939","article-title":"The revised International Association for the Study of Pain definition of pain: Concepts, challenges, and compromises","volume":"161","author":"Raja","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pain"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E37","DOI":"10.1684\/bdc.2010.1132","article-title":"Incidence of severe postoperative pain after cancer surgery despite intraoperative anticipation: A case controlled study","volume":"97","author":"Motamed","year":"2010","journal-title":"Bull. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1007\/s11916-020-0844-3","article-title":"Patient and Surgery-Related Predictors of Acute Postoperative Pain","volume":"24","author":"Coppes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Pain Headache Rep."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e025091","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2018-025091","article-title":"Preoperative predictors of poor acute postoperative pain control: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"9","author":"Yang","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5783817","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/5783817","article-title":"Predictors for Moderate to Severe Acute Postoperative Pain after Cesarean Section","volume":"2016","author":"Borges","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pain Res. Manag."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1302\/1863-2548.15.210090","article-title":"Predictors of persistent postoperative pain after surgery for idiopathic scoliosis","volume":"15","author":"Charalampidis","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Child Orthop."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1007\/s11916-020-0842-5","article-title":"An Analysis of Predictors of Persistent Postoperative Pain in Spine Surgery","volume":"24","author":"Costelloe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Pain Headache Rep."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e17621","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000017621","article-title":"Identification of predictors for acute postoperative pain after gynecological laparoscopy (STROBE-compliant article)","volume":"98","author":"Joo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"656","DOI":"10.1213\/ANE.0000000000005072","article-title":"Preoperative Pressure Pain Threshold Is Associated With Postoperative Pain in Short-Stay Anorectal Surgery: A Prospective Observational Study","volume":"132","author":"Luedi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.1213\/ANE.0000000000005200","article-title":"Predicting Postoperative Pain: A Complex Interplay of Multiple Factors","volume":"132","author":"Nelson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1111\/papr.12729","article-title":"Prediction of Acute Postoperative Pain from Assessment of Pain Associated With Venous Cannulation","volume":"19","author":"Persson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pain Pract."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi, S.W., Cho, H.K., Park, S., Yoo, J.H., Lee, J.C., Baek, M.J., Jang, H.D., Cha, J.S., and Shin, B.J. (2020). Multimodal Analgesia (MMA) Versus Patient-Controlled Analgesia (PCA) for One or Two-Level Posterior Lumbar Fusion Surgery. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9041087"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3165","DOI":"10.1007\/s00268-021-06217-x","article-title":"Postoperative Pain Relief after Pancreatic Resection: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Analgesic Modalities","volume":"45","author":"Akter","year":"2021","journal-title":"World J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Niu, L., Chen, L., Luo, Y., Huang, W., and Li, Y. (2021). Oxycodone versus morphine for analgesia after laparoscopic endometriosis resection. BMC Anesthesiol., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12871-021-01540-1"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-57620-8","article-title":"Moderate-severe postoperative pain in patients undergoing video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery: A retrospective study","volume":"10","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qin, M., Chen, K., Liu, T., and Shen, X. (2017). Dexmedetomidine in combination with sufentanil for postoperative analgesia after partial laryngectomy. BMC Anesthesiol., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12871-017-0363-x"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5667","DOI":"10.21873\/anticanres.15383","article-title":"Erector Spinae Plane Block Versus Serratus Plane Block in Breast Conserving Surgery: Alpha Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"41","author":"Vanni","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anticancer Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1111\/aas.13688","article-title":"Chronic post-operative opioid use after open cardiac surgery: A Danish population-based cohort study","volume":"65","author":"Bonnesen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1136\/rapm-2020-102060","article-title":"Risk of chronic opioid use after simultaneous versus staged bilateral knee arthroplasty","volume":"46","author":"Wilson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Reg. Anesth. Pain Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1097\/ALN.0000000000003962","article-title":"Persistent Postoperative Opioid Prescription Fulfillment and Peripheral Nerve Blocks for Ambulatory Shoulder Surgery: A Retrospective Cohort Study","volume":"135","author":"Hamilton","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anesthesiology"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1007\/s00590-019-02618-w","article-title":"Risk factors associated with persistent chronic opioid use following THA","volume":"30","author":"Anoushiravani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Orthop. Surg. Traumatol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.1093\/bja\/80.6.742","article-title":"Postoperative hypoxaemia: Continuous extradural infusion of bupivacaine and morphine vs patient-controlled analgesia with intravenous morphine","volume":"80","author":"Motamed","year":"1998","journal-title":"Br. J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.3233\/NRE-210077","article-title":"Chronic pain in lower limb amputees: Is there a correlation with the use of perioperative epidural or perineural analgesia?","volume":"49","author":"Benedetti","year":"2021","journal-title":"NeuroRehabilitation"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpra.2021.07.006","article-title":"Post-Mastectomy Pain Syndrome: An Up-to-Date Review of Treatment Outcomes","volume":"30","author":"Chappell","year":"2021","journal-title":"JPRAS Open"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e051554","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2021-051554","article-title":"Prognostic factors for chronic post-surgical pain after lung or pleural surgery: A protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"11","author":"Clephas","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1007\/s00540-021-02943-7","article-title":"Predictors of one year chronic post-surgical pain trajectories following thoracic surgery","volume":"35","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Anesth."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2615","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-82273-6","article-title":"Prevalence of chronic post-thoracotomy pain in patients with traumatic multiple rib fractures in South Korea: A cross-sectional study","volume":"11","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1080\/15360288.2020.1828528","article-title":"Post Laparoscopy Neuropathic Pain Treated by Capsaicin 8% Dermal Patch","volume":"35","author":"Samara","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Pain Palliat. Care Pharmacother"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1767","DOI":"10.1093\/pm\/pnab039","article-title":"Persistent Post-Mastectomy Pain: The Impact of Regional Anesthesia Among Patients with High vs Low Baseline Catastrophizing","volume":"22","author":"Zinboonyahgoon","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pain Med."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"CD003348","article-title":"Patient controlled opioid analgesia versus conventional opioid analgesia for postoperative pain","volume":"4","author":"Hudcova","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"CD003348","article-title":"Patient controlled opioid analgesia versus non-patient controlled opioid analgesia for postoperative pain","volume":"6","author":"McNicol","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-9592.1996.tb00350.x","article-title":"Variation in opioid use during PCA in adolescents","volume":"6","author":"Tyler","year":"1996","journal-title":"Paediatr. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.2165\/00003088-199733030-00005","article-title":"Pharmacokinetic optimisation of opioid treatment in acute pain therapy","volume":"33","author":"Upton","year":"1997","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacokinet."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1097\/00000542-198012000-00005","article-title":"Relationship between blood meperidine concentrations and analgesic response: A preliminary report","volume":"53","author":"Austin","year":"1980","journal-title":"Anesthesiology"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1093\/bja\/aer458","article-title":"Postoperative intravenous morphine titration","volume":"108","author":"Aubrun","year":"2012","journal-title":"Br. J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.5055\/jom.2014.0216","article-title":"Remifentanil target-controlled infusion: A safe rescue protocol for unexpected severe postoperative pain","volume":"10","author":"Motamed","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Opioid. Manag."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2044.1997.83-az0081.x","article-title":"Morphine blood concentrations in elderly postoperative patients following administration via an indwelling subcutaneous cannula","volume":"52","author":"Semple","year":"1997","journal-title":"Anaesthesia"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1093\/bja\/87.3.385","article-title":"Predictive factors of early morphine requirements in the post-anaesthesia care unit (PACU)","volume":"87","author":"Dahmani","year":"2001","journal-title":"Br. J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1213\/ANE.0000000000003887","article-title":"Side Effect Rates of Opioids in Equianalgesic Doses via Intravenous Patient-Controlled Analgesia: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-analysis","volume":"129","author":"Dinges","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miyoshi, H., Nakamura, R., Noda, Y., Yokomi, H., Kamiya, S., Morio, A., Watanabe, T., Narasaki, S., Toyota, Y., and Saeki, N. (2021). Intravenous patient-controlled analgesia does not increase the risk of postoperative delirium compared to patient-controlled epidural analgesia: A propensity score-matched retrospective cohort study. Ann. Palliat. Med.","DOI":"10.21037\/apm-21-1084"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.5055\/jom.2011.0073","article-title":"Analgesic efficacy of intravenous naloxone for the treatment of postoperative pruritus: A meta-analysis","volume":"7","author":"Murphy","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Opioid. Manag."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1002\/phar.1930","article-title":"Low-Dose Naloxone for Prophylaxis of Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"37","author":"Barrons","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pharmacotherapy"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1097\/ANA.0000000000000374","article-title":"Ultra-low-dose Naloxone as an Adjuvant to Patient Controlled Analgesia (PCA) With Morphine for Postoperative Pain Relief Following Lumber Discectomy: A Double-blind, Randomized, Placebo-controlled Trial","volume":"30","author":"Firouzian","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg. Anesthesiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jspd.2018.01.005","article-title":"Low-Dose Versus High-Dose Postoperative Naloxone Infusion Combined With Patient-Controlled Analgesia for Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis Surgery: A Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"6","author":"Pieters","year":"2018","journal-title":"Spine Deform."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.23736\/S0375-9393.20.14324-4","article-title":"Epidural anesthesia is no longer the standard of care in abdominal surgery with ERAS. What are the alternatives?","volume":"86","author":"Wagemans","year":"2020","journal-title":"Minerva. Anestesiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1179","DOI":"10.1080\/03007995.2018.1462785","article-title":"Non-invasive patient-controlled analgesia in the management of acute postoperative pain in the hospital setting","volume":"34","author":"Morlion","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Res. Opin."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.4097\/kjae.2017.70.3.311","article-title":"Integration of pain scores, morphine consumption and demand\/delivery ratio to evaluate patient-controlled analgesia: The C-SIA score","volume":"70","author":"Piccioni","year":"2017","journal-title":"Korean J. Anesthesiol."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"15","article-title":"Factors Influencing Patient Satisfaction on Patient-Controlled Analgesia (PCA) for Postoperative Pain Management","volume":"45","author":"Engsusophon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Thai J. Anesthesiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2851","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-017-5230-4","article-title":"The effectiveness of low-dose and high-dose tranexamic acid in posterior lumbar interbody fusion: A double-blinded, placebo-controlled randomized study","volume":"26","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. Spine J."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, G., Yao, W., Chen, X., Zhang, S., and Zhou, M. (2020). Remifentanil patient-controlled versus epidural analgesia on intrapartum maternal fever: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-020-2800-y"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3932","DOI":"10.21037\/apm-20-1939","article-title":"Postoperative sufentanil intravenous patient-controlled analgesia within the first 24 h: A retrospective study","volume":"9","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Palliat. Med."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brinck, E.C.V., Virtanen, T., Makela, S., Soini, V., Hynninen, V.V., Mulo, J., Savolainen, U., Rantakokko, J., Maisniemi, K., and Liukas, A. (2021). S-ketamine in patient-controlled analgesia reduces opioid consumption in a dose-dependent manner after major lumbar fusion surgery: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.01.22.21250352"},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"43","article-title":"Ketamine Versus Tramadol As an Adjunct To PCA Morphine for Postoperative Analgesia After Major Upper Abdominal Surgery: A Prospective, Comparative, Randomized Trial","volume":"27","author":"Matsota","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rom. J. Anaesth. Intensive Care"},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"D5084","article-title":"Postoperative opioid overdose due to patient-controlled analgesia by proxy","volume":"164","author":"Janssen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ned. Tijdschr. Geneeskd."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03021027","article-title":"Programming errors contribute to death from patient-controlled analgesia: Case report and estimate of probability","volume":"50","author":"Vicente","year":"2003","journal-title":"Can. J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"37","article-title":"Right programming of pumps to prevent errors in the infusion process","volume":"29","author":"Flynn","year":"2003","journal-title":"Jt. Comm. J. Qual. Saf."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1069","DOI":"10.1007\/s11096-016-0369-3","article-title":"Sources and magnitude of error in preparing morphine infusions for nurse-patient controlled analgesia in a UK paediatric hospital","volume":"38","author":"Rashed","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1136\/ejhpharm-2015-000866","article-title":"Current practice of preparing morphine infusions for nurse\/patient-controlled analgesia in a UK paediatric hospital: Healthcare professionals\u2019 views and experiences","volume":"25","author":"Rashed","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Hosp. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03021849","article-title":"Morphine overdose from error propagation on an acute pain service","volume":"53","author":"Syed","year":"2006","journal-title":"Can. J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/S0090-4295(95)97732-5","article-title":"Postoperative myocardial infarction after radical cystoprostatectomy masked by patient-controlled analgesia","volume":"45","author":"Finger","year":"1995","journal-title":"Urology"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dinter, K., Bretschneider, H., Zwingenberger, S., Disch, A., Osmers, A., Vicent, O., Thielemann, F., Seifert, J., and Bernstein, P. (2021). Accelerate postoperative management after scoliosis surgery in healthy and impaired children: Intravenous opioid therapy versus epidural therapy. Arch. Orthop. Trauma Surg.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00402-021-03972-3"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1444","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpedsurg.2019.09.021","article-title":"Postoperative pain control modalities for pectus excavatum repair: A prospective observational study of cryoablation compared to results of a randomized trial of epidural vs patient-controlled analgesia","volume":"55","author":"Dekonenko","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Surg."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pedn.2021.06.002","article-title":"A PRISMA systematic review on the safety and efficacy of patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) in pediatrics","volume":"61","author":"Sharp","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1111\/pan.13639","article-title":"The Society for Pediatric Anesthesia recommendations for the use of opioids in children during the perioperative period","volume":"29","author":"Cravero","year":"2019","journal-title":"Paediatr. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpa.2006.12.005","article-title":"The elderly patient and postoperative pain treatment","volume":"21","author":"Aubrun","year":"2007","journal-title":"Best Pract. Res. Clin. Anaesthesiol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2008","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000002008","article-title":"Postoperative Pain and Intravenous Patient-Controlled Analgesia-Related Adverse Effects in Young and Elderly Patients: A Retrospective Analysis of 10,575 Patients","volume":"94","author":"Koh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1097\/NOR.0000000000000159","article-title":"Do Elderly Patients Use Patient-Controlled Analgesia Medication Delivery Systems Correctly?","volume":"34","author":"Brown","year":"2015","journal-title":"Orthop. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1577","DOI":"10.1007\/s40262-017-0544-2","article-title":"Influence of Morbid Obesity on the Pharmacokinetics of Morphine, Morphine-3-Glucuronide, and Morphine-6-Glucuronide","volume":"56","author":"Valitalo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacokinet."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1097\/00000542-199205000-00026","article-title":"Patient-controlled analgesia for morbidly obese patients: An effective modality if used correctly","volume":"76","author":"Levin","year":"1992","journal-title":"Anesthesiology"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.5055\/jom.2017.0390","article-title":"Postoperative pain scores and opioid consumption in opioid-dependent patients with cancer after intraoperative remifentanil analgesia: A prospective case-controlled study","volume":"13","author":"Motamed","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Opioid. Manag."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14753","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000014753","article-title":"A comparison of 2 intravenous patient-controlled analgesia modes after spinal fusion surgery: Constant-rate background infusion versus variable-rate feedback infusion, a randomized controlled trial","volume":"98","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jung, K.T., So, K.Y., Kim, S.U., and Kim, S.H. (2021). The Optimizing Background Infusion Mode Decreases Intravenous Patient-Controlled Analgesic Volume and Opioid Consumption Compared to Fixed-Rate Background Infusion in Patients Undergoing Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy: A Prospective, Randomized, Controlled, Double-Blind Study. Medicina, 57.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina57010042"}],"container-title":["Pharmacy"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2226-4787\/10\/1\/22\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:08:59Z","timestamp":1760134139000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2226-4787\/10\/1\/22"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]]},"references-count":75,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2]]}},"alternative-id":["pharmacy10010022"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/pharmacy10010022","relation":{},"ISSN":["2226-4787"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2226-4787","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]]}}}