{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T01:05:29Z","timestamp":1760231129774,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,30]],"date-time":"2022-08-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1661817600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Commission INCO-DC programme INVASS","award":["IC18CT970145","PP83\/2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IC18CT970145","PP83\/2022"]}]},{"name":"Rhodes University Publication","award":["IC18CT970145","PP83\/2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IC18CT970145","PP83\/2022"]}]},{"name":"CES","award":["IC18CT970145","PP83\/2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IC18CT970145","PP83\/2022"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Plants"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The principal aim of this paper is to show that marram grass is not an invasive alien in South Africa although it affects the dune dynamics as a useful pioneer species in the dune successional process. The historical perspective of marram introduction as a dune stabiliser and the studies and conclusions reached from our European Union funded project, INVASS, in the 1990s and early 2000s is presented. Although these studies showed that marram was non-invasive, this was not clearly carried through to the authorities, and the use of the grass as a dune stabiliser was limited without a special permit. This prompted a survey of the current situation of marram on dune sites in the Eastern Cape. Along with earlier (1980s) data on the dunes, 69 relev\u00e9s with 66 species abundance from sites along the Eastern Cape shoreline were assembled. These data were analysed with Detrended Correspondence Analysis to show the relationships of the samples (relev\u00e9s) and species in a 2-dimensional scatter diagram. The survey showed that there are four dune sites where marram grass is no longer present, due to either marram being out of its climatic range, erosion of sand under storm conditions which made the habitat unsuitable, or in one case where marram simply disappeared. Marram often remains in other sites where three to five dune pioneer species were recorded. On some dunes, although marram is the most abundant dune pioneer, it is never dominant in the dune environment but has a presence of as much as 75% at any site. The eight pioneer species are widely dispersed on the DCA scatter diagram, while the shrub species characterising the Coastal Scrub are tightly clustered, showing that all the pioneer dune communities behave similarly in the dune successional series. The conclusion from these studies is that marram grass does not always persist in the dune systems. If marram does persist, it does not compete and behaves identically to the indigenous species as a dune pioneer. These studies show that marram grass is a non-invasive species that can be successfully used in dune stabilisation on Cape dunes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/plants11172260","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,31]],"date-time":"2022-08-31T00:13:56Z","timestamp":1661904836000},"page":"2260","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Current State of Ammophila arenaria (Marram Grass) Distribution in the Eastern Cape, South Africa, and the Possible Effect of the Grass on the Dune System Dynamics"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7563-5372","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roy A.","family":"Lubke","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Botany, Rhodes University, Grahamstown 6140, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Hertling, U.M. (1997). An Autecological Study of Ammophila arenaria and Alternative Indigenous Species Used in Dune Stabilisation on the Cape Coast. [Ph.D. Thesis, Rhodes University]. Unpublished."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Shaughnessy, G.L. (1980). Historical ecology of alien woody plants in the vicinity of Cape Town. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cape Town (School of Environmental Studies Report No. 23)]."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Bruton, M.N., and Gess, F.W. (1988). Management policy of the Directorate of Forestry in respect of diverse ecological types. Towards an Environmental Plan for the Eastern Cape, Rhodes University."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/0169-2046(89)90055-8","article-title":"A review of coastal dune stabilisation in the Cape Province of South Africa","volume":"18","author":"Avis","year":"1989","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2010.06.006","article-title":"Impacts of soil microbial communities on exotic plant invasions","volume":"25","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trends Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Van der Maarel, E. (1993). Dry coastal ecosystems of north-western North America. Ecosystems of the World 2B: Dry Coastal Ecosystems: Africa, America, Asia and Oceania, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Avis, A.M., and Lubke, R.A. (1994, January 23\u201327). Dynamics and Succession of Coastal Dune Vegetation in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Proceedings of the Dunes 1994 Conference, Port Elizabeth, South Africa."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1007\/s002679900247","article-title":"Use of Ammophila arenaria for dune stabilisation in South Africa and its current distribution\u2014Perceptions and problems","volume":"24","author":"Lubke","year":"1999","journal-title":"Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02905118","article-title":"Is Ammophila arenaria a threat to coastal dune ecosystems?","volume":"1","author":"Lubke","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Coast. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1007\/s00442-004-1662-8","article-title":"Release from native root herbivores and biotic resistance by soil pathogens in a new habitat both affect the alien Ammophila arenaria in South Africa","volume":"141","author":"Knevel","year":"2004","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Knevel, I.C., Lubke, R.A., and Van der Putten, W.H. (2005, January 19\u201323). Release from native root herbivores and biotic resistance by soil pathogens in a new habitat both affect the alien Ammophila arenaria in South Africa. Proceedings of the Dunes and Estuaries 2005\u2014International Conference on Nature Restoration Practices in European Coastal Habitats, Koksijde, Belgium."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Knevel, I.C. (2001). The Life History of Selected Coastal Foredune Species of South Africa. [Ph.D. Thesis, Rhodes University]. Unpublished."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1652\/1400-0350(2002)008[0169:TSFIDS]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The search for indigenous dune stabilisers: Germination requirements of selected South African species","volume":"8","author":"Knevel","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Coast. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2824","DOI":"10.1890\/02-0517","article-title":"Invasiveness of Ammophila arenaria: Release from soil-borne pathogens?","volume":"84","author":"Beckstead","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-7939.2006.00054.x","article-title":"The loss of New Zealand\u2019s active dunes and the spread of Marram grass (Ammophila arenaria)","volume":"62","author":"Hilton","year":"2006","journal-title":"N. Zldn. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.2307\/1478979","article-title":"Indigenous and Ammophila arenaria-dominated dune vegetation on the South African Cape coast","volume":"2","author":"Hertling","year":"1999","journal-title":"Appl. Veg. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"520","article-title":"Assessing the potential for biological invasion \u2014The case of Ammophila arenaria in South Africa","volume":"96","author":"Hertling","year":"2000","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1007\/s11258-004-3369-7","article-title":"Reproductive phenology of Scaevola plumieri; a key coloniser of the coastal foredunes of South Africa","volume":"175","author":"Knevel","year":"2004","journal-title":"Plant Ecol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02742479","article-title":"The role of European marram grass in dune stabilisation and succession near Cape Agulhas, South Africa","volume":"7","author":"Lubke","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Coast. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1360","DOI":"10.1111\/ddi.12379","article-title":"Framework and guidelines for implementing the proposed IUCN Environmental Impact Classification for Alien Taxa (EICAT)","volume":"21","author":"Hawkins","year":"2015","journal-title":"Divers. Distrib."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"23","article-title":"Evidence, perceptions, and trade-offs associated with invasive alien plant control in the Table Mountain National Park, South Africa","volume":"17","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ecol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Bromilow, C. (2010). Problem Plants and Alien Weeds of South Africa, Briza Publications."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.2307\/1931081","article-title":"Factors affecting vegetational zonation on coastal dunes","volume":"23","author":"Oosting","year":"1942","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Van der Maarel, E. (1993). Dry coastal ecosystems along the Great Lakes. Ecosystems of the World 2B: Dry coastal ecosystems: Africa, America, Asia and Oceania, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Avis, A.M. (1992). Coastal Management and Stabilisation of Mobile Dune Systems. [Ph.D. Thesis, Rhodes University]. Unpublished."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"599","article-title":"Succession on the coastal dunes and dune slacks at Kleinemonde, Eastern Cape, South Africa","volume":"25","author":"Lubke","year":"1988","journal-title":"Mongr. Syst. Bot. Missouri Bot. Gard."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Martinez, M.L., and Psuty, N.P. (2004). egetation dynamics and succession on sand dunes of the eastern coasts of Africa. Coastal Dunes, Springer. Ecology and Conservation (Ecological Studies, Vol. 171)."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Lubke, R.A., and Avis, A.M. (1986). Stabilisation and management of coastal sand dunes. Coastal Information Pamphlet No. 1, Rhodes University."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"CES (2017). Risk Assessment for the Use of Marram Grass for Dune Rehabilitation and Management Projects in the City of Cape Town Metropolitan Areas, Coastal & Environmental Services."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1093\/jpe\/rtt069","article-title":"Multi-scale phylogenetic structure in coastal dune plant communities across the globe","volume":"7","author":"Brunbjerg","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Plant Ecol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1080\/00378941.1921.10836795","article-title":"\u00c9tudes sur la V\u00e9g\u00e9tation et la Flore Marocaines","volume":"68","author":"Maire","year":"1921","journal-title":"Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Braun-Blanquet, J. (1964). Pflanzensoziologie: Grundz\u00fcge der Vegetationskunde, Springer. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-7091-8110-2"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02389711","article-title":"The Braun-Blanquet approach in perspective","volume":"30","year":"1975","journal-title":"Vegetatio"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Whittaker, R.H. (1973). The Braun-Blanquet Approach. Ordination and Classification of Communities, Dr. W. Junk.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-010-2701-4"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Pisces Conservation Ltd. (2007). Version 4.1.3; Community Analysis Package 4: CAP4, Pisces Conservation Ltd."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Lubke, R.A. (2003, January 8\u201314). 17 years of change in a dune slack community in the Eastern Cape. Proceedings of the 46th Symposium of the International Association of Vegetation Science, Napoli, Italy."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sajb.2016.05.020","article-title":"The interaction between the dunes systems and the lower estuary at the Bushmans River Mouth, Eastern Cape over the past 60 years","volume":"107","author":"Lubke","year":"2016","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Webb, C. (2002). The Coastal Dune Dynamics and Management at Bushman\u2019s River Estuary, Kenton-on-Sea. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Rhodes University]. Unpublished."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"434","article-title":"The potential for marine dispersal of Ammophila arenaria (Marram Grass) rhizome in New Zealand","volume":"43","author":"Konlechner","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Coast. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3207(85)90080-1","article-title":"Erosion of the beach at St Francis Bay, Eastern Cape, South Africa","volume":"32","author":"Lubke","year":"1985","journal-title":"Biol. Conserv."}],"container-title":["Plants"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2223-7747\/11\/17\/2260\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:20:35Z","timestamp":1760142035000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2223-7747\/11\/17\/2260"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,30]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9]]}},"alternative-id":["plants11172260"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/plants11172260","relation":{},"ISSN":["2223-7747"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2223-7747"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,30]]}}}