{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,12]],"date-time":"2026-10-12T21:13:19Z","timestamp":1791839599462,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,21]],"date-time":"2025-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755734400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Plants"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Type 2 diabetes is a serious public health problem in the 21st century. To find new substances supporting diabetes therapy, researchers are increasingly paying attention to the biological potential of edible flowers. This study assessed the antidiabetic potential of ethanol, 50% ethanol, and water extracts from Paeonia officinalis L., Forsythia \u00d7 intermedia, Gomphrena globosa L., and Clitoria ternatea L. flowers. Extracts were tested for antioxidant activity (DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, CUPRAC, and Fe2+ chelation), enzyme inhibition (\u03b1-glucosidase, \u03b1-amylase, hyaluronidase, and cholinesterases), and anti-inflammatory effects (NO inhibition in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages). Phytochemical composition was also analysed. Extracts of P. officinalis stood out with the highest total phenolic content (50% ethanol extract of P. officinalis 178.49 mg GAE\/g) and total flavonoid content (aqueous extracts of P. officinalis 4.27 mg QE\/g), high gallic acid level, and the effective inhibition of \u03b1-glucosidase and \u03b1-amylase (\u03b1-glucosidase inhibition 98\u201399% for all P. officinalis extracts, and \u03b1-amylase inhibition ~ 100% for ethanolic extract). Strong hyaluronidase (76.9\u201395.5%) and cholinesterase inhibition was also observed. F. \u00d7 intermedia extracts were rich in rutin and chlorogenic acid and showed potent inhibitory effects on \u03b1-glucosidase (50% ethanol extract 91.59%), \u03b1-amylase (aqueous extract 89.35%), and hyaluronidase (aqueous extract 73.8%). Ethanol extracts of G. globosa exhibited a high \u03b1-amylase inhibition (93\u201395%). Although C. ternatea showed moderate antioxidant activity, it showed an apparent anti-inflammatory effect, effectively reducing NO production in activated macrophages for 50% ethanol extract. In summary, P. officinalis and F. \u00d7 intermedia flowers are promising sources of extracts with antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory effects supporting their use in further research on type 2 diabetes therapy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/plants14162603","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,21]],"date-time":"2025-08-21T14:46:04Z","timestamp":1755787564000},"page":"2603","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Edible Flowers as Bioactive Food Ingredients with Antidiabetic Potential: A Study on Paeonia officinalis L., Forsythia \u00d7 intermedia, Gomphrena globosa L., and Clitoria ternatea L."],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-4299-8047","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maciej","family":"Ksi\u0105\u017ckiewicz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The Student Scientific Society of Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Section \u201cPharmacognosy\u201d, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 3 Rokietnicka Str., 60-806 Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-3594-4939","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michalina","family":"Karczewska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Student Scientific Society of Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Section \u201cPharmacognosy\u201d, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 3 Rokietnicka Str., 60-806 Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Filip","family":"Nawrot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Student Scientific Society of Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Section \u201cPharmacognosy\u201d, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 3 Rokietnicka Str., 60-806 Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1426-2218","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karolina","family":"Grabowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chair of Pharmacognosy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, 9 Medyczna Str., 30-688 Cracow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7528-5213","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcin","family":"Szyma\u0144ski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Advanced Technologies, Adam Mickiewicz University in Pozna\u0144, 10 Uniwersytetu Pozna\u0144skiego Str., 61-614 Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0891-5419","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Judyta","family":"Cielecka-Piontek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacognosy and Biomaterials, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 3 Rokietnicka Str., 60-806 Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0462-1766","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"El\u017cbieta","family":"Studzi\u0144ska-Sroka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacognosy and Biomaterials, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 3 Rokietnicka Str., 60-806 Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1038\/nrendo.2017.151","article-title":"Global Aetiology and Epidemiology of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Its Complications","volume":"14","author":"Zheng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. 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