{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T18:55:28Z","timestamp":1782845728234,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782777600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key R&D Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2024YFD1500103"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024YFD1500103"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Plants"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Premature leaf senescence during the late growth stage of Arachis hypogaea (peanut) reduces photosynthetic capacity and restricts pod filling, thereby limiting yield. Although biochar has been widely used for soil improvement due to its porous structure and stability, its long-term effects on sustaining photosynthetic performance and improving yield through nutrient regulation remain insufficiently understood. Based on a long-term field micro-plot experiment established in 2009, four fertilization treatments were evaluated: maize straw return + NPK (CS), pig manure compost + NPK (PMC), biochar + NPK (BIO), and biochar-based fertilizer (BF), with three replicates. Peanut was used as the test crop in 2024. Photosynthetic parameters, SPAD values, leaf N, P, and K contents, nutrient use efficiencies (PNUE, PPUE, PKUE), nutrient ratios, carbon allocation characteristics, and yield were measured at key growth stages. Results showed that the BIO treatment maintained higher net photosynthetic rate and SPAD value at the full-pod maturity stage compared with CS, PMC, and BF. Leaf K content was significantly increased under BIO, while the N:K ratio remained below 2.1, indicating reduced risk of potassium-related nutrient imbalance. The N:P ratio also remained relatively stable, suggesting improved nutrient balance with respect to phosphorus during the late growth stage. BIO showed the highest estimated contribution of photosynthetic carbon to pod dry weight, and yield increased by 19.2\u201328.6% compared with other treatments. These results indicate that long-term biochar application was associated with sustained late-stage photosynthetic performance and improved leaf nutrient balance, which may contribute to higher peanut yield. This study provides new evidence supporting the potential role of long-term biochar application in sustainable peanut production.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/plants15132025","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T16:56:55Z","timestamp":1782838615000},"page":"2025","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Long-Term Biochar Application Enhances Peanut Yield by Delaying Leaf Senescence and Optimizing Nutrient Balance"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Xinyu","family":"Mu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Land and Environment, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ni","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Land and Environment, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wentao","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Land and Environment, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Meng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Land and Environment, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ning","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Land and Environment, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Na","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Liaoning Agricultural and Rural Development Service Center, Shenyang 110034, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shunguo","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Liaoning Agricultural and Rural Development Service Center, Shenyang 110034, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8508-8640","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiumei","family":"Zhan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Land and Environment, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2927","DOI":"10.2134\/agronj2017.03.0190","article-title":"Rational Nitrogen Strategies Can Improve Peanut Source Supply Capacity and Pod Yield","volume":"109","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Agron. J."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Z., Gao, F., Yang, J., Zhen, X., Li, Y., Zhao, J., Li, J., Qian, B., Yang, D., and Li, X. (2019). Photosynthetic Characteristics and Uptake and Translocation of Nitrogen in Peanut in a Wheat\u2013Peanut Rotation System Under Different Fertilizer Management Regimes. Front. Plant Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2019.00086"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1007\/s42773-023-00207-z","article-title":"Multifaceted applications of biochar in environmental management: A bibliometric profile","volume":"5","author":"Kumar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biochar"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mahmoud, A.W.M., Samy, M.M., Sany, H., Eid, R.R., Rashad, H.M., and Abdeldaym, E.A. (2022). Nanopotassium, Nanosilicon, and Biochar Applications Improve Potato Salt Tolerance by Modulating Photosynthesis, Water Status, and Biochemical Constituents. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su14020723"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1139\/cjss-2018-0076","article-title":"Decomposition and nutrient release pattern of animal manures biodegraded by fly larvae in Acrisols","volume":"99","author":"Obognon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Can. J. Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, M., Song, W., and Tian, J. (2020). Biochar-Facilitated Soil Remediation: Mechanisms and Efficacy Variations. Front. Environ. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fenvs.2020.521512"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2695","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2017.06.076","article-title":"Balancing straw returning and chemical fertilizers in China: Role of straw nutrient resources","volume":"81","author":"Yin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Doyeni, M.O., Stulpinaite, U., Baksinskaite, A., Suproniene, S., and Tilvikiene, V. (2021). The Effectiveness of Digestate Use for Fertilization in an Agricultural Cropping System. Plants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants10081734"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, Z.Z., Liu, J.X., Nie, J.M., Liang, C., Guo, S.M., Zhou, C.C., Huang, Y.C., and Wang, S. (2025). Co-Incorporation of Controlled-Release Urea and Conventional Urea Enhances Rice Yield, Economic Benefits, and Nitrogen Use Efficiency in Saline\u2013Alkali Paddy Fields. Agronomy, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy15122786"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y.Y., Wang, J.X., and Wang, L.Q. (2024). Seasonal variations in C\/N\/P\/K stoichiometric characteristics in different plant organs in the various forest types of Sygera Mountain. Front. Plant Sci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2024.1293934"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, R.R., Lu, Y., Wan, F.X., Wang, Y.M., and Pan, X.C. (2018). Impacts of a High Nitrogen Load on Foliar Nutrient Status, N Metabolism, and Photosynthetic Capacity in a Cupressus lusitanica Mill. Plantation. Forests, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/f9080483"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, X.X., Zhang, X., Ni, W., Liu, C.L., Qin, H.H., Guan, Y.F., Liu, J.Q., Feng, Z.Q., Xing, Y., and Tian, G. (2024). Nitrogen\u2013potassium balance improves leaf photosynthetic capacity by regulating leaf nitrogen allocation in apple. Hortic. Res., 11.","DOI":"10.1093\/hr\/uhad253"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113909","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2022.113909","article-title":"An assessment of biochar as a potential amendment to enhance plant nutrient uptake","volume":"214","author":"Hou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4085","DOI":"10.1080\/01904167.2023.2220740","article-title":"Rhizosphere nutrient availability and nutrient uptake of soybean in response to biochar application","volume":"46","author":"Neththasinghe","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Plant Nutr."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.20546\/ijcmas.2020.912.056","article-title":"Influence of Different Levels of Coconut Shell Biochar on Nutrients Concentration and Nutrient Uptake by Soybean","volume":"9","author":"Rohitha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, R.R., and Wang, X.T. (2022). BOOK REVIEW: Analytical methods for soil and agro-chemistry (in Chinese). Edited by H. Z. Zhu, P. A. He, C. Z. Chen, H. M. Zhou, D. C. Su, J. M. Xu, H. Y. Qin, S. D. Bao, R. K. Lu S. H. Jiang Soil Science Society of China Beijing, China Agricultural Science and Technology Press, 2000, pp. 638. ISBN: 9787801199256. Eur. J. Soil Sci., 73.","DOI":"10.1111\/ejss.13280"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1039\/an9669100119","article-title":"Automatic methods for the determination of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in plant material","volume":"91","author":"Varley","year":"1966","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-185X.2007.00027.x","article-title":"Effect size, confidence interval and statistical significance: A practical guide for biologists","volume":"82","author":"Nakagawa","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00877430","article-title":"Canonical correspondence analysis and related multivariate methods in aquatic ecology","volume":"57","author":"Verdonschot","year":"1995","journal-title":"Aquat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.still.2019.05.007","article-title":"Soil water retention, physiological characteristics, and growth of maize plants in response to biochar application to soil","volume":"192","author":"Tanure","year":"2019","journal-title":"Soil Tillage Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, Y., Tang, Z.H., Xia, H.Q., Sheng, M.F., Liu, M., Pan, S.Y., Li, Z.Y., and Liu, J.R. (2021). Potassium Fertilization Stimulates Sucrose-to-Starch Conversion and Root Formation in Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.). Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22094826"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Y.R., Lan, X.J., Hou, H.Q., Ji, J.H., Liu, X.M., and Lv, Z.Z. (2024). Multifaceted Ability of Organic Fertilizers to Improve Crop Productivity and Abiotic Stress Tolerance: Review and Perspectives. Agronomy, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy14061141"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141645","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.141645","article-title":"Soil type regulates carbon and nitrogen stoichiometry and mineralization following biochar or nitrogen addition","volume":"753","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"153","article-title":"Phosphorus and potassium fertilization in creeping peanut","volume":"19","author":"Zoz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Agrar."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, P.J., Liu, Q., Fan, S.L., Wang, J., Mu, S.G., and Zhu, C.B. (2023). Combined Application of Desulfurization Gypsum and Biochar for Improving Saline-Alkali Soils: A Strategy to Improve Newly Reclaimed Cropland in Coastal Mudflats. Land, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/land12091717"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, S.J., Zheng, J.L., Wang, Y.J., Yang, Q.F., Chen, T.T., Chen, Y.L., Chi, D.C., Xia, G.M., Siddique, K.H.M., and Wang, T.L. (2021). Photosynthesis, Chlorophyll Fluorescence, and Yield of Peanut in Response to Biochar Application. Front. Plant Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2021.650432"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9641","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-93959-6","article-title":"Mitigation of salinity stress via improving growth, chlorophyll contents and antioxidants defense in sunflower with Bacillus pumilis and biochar","volume":"15","author":"Tu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tang, K.H.D. (2025). Biochar Amendments for Soil Restoration: Impacts on Nutrient Dynamics and Microbial Activity. Environments, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/environments12110425"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, Y.-E., Jeong, Y., Shin, D.-C., Ahn, K.-H., Jung, J.-H., and Kim, I.-T. (2021). Fabrication of Mg-Doped Sargassum Biochar for Phosphate and Ammonium Recovery. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su132212752"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122705","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2026.122705","article-title":"Granular Mg-enriched biochar-based compound fertilizer: Enhanced slow-release performance and effects on maize growth under reduced application rates","volume":"240","author":"Li","year":"2026","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.17221\/228\/2024-PSE","article-title":"Biochar distribution mode in soil affects the vegetative peanut growth, nitrogen uptake and nitrogen-fixing bacteria activity","volume":"70","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Plant Soil Environ."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1017\/S1473550403001563","article-title":"Biological stoichiometry: A theoretical framework connecting ecosystem ecology, evolution, and biochemistry for application in astrobiology","volume":"2","author":"Elser","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Astrobiol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1441","DOI":"10.2307\/2404783","article-title":"The vegetation N: P ratio: A new tool to detect the nature of nutrient limitation","volume":"33","author":"Koerselman","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Appl. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8137.2004.01192.x","article-title":"N:P ratios in terrestrial plants: Variation and functional significance","volume":"164","year":"2004","journal-title":"New Phytol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1093\/aob\/mcx106","article-title":"An assessment on the uncertainty of the nitrogen to phosphorus ratio as a threshold for nutrient limitation in plants","volume":"120","author":"Yan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Bot."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1038\/nature02403","article-title":"The worldwide leaf economics spectrum","volume":"428","author":"Wright","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2191","DOI":"10.1890\/01-0639","article-title":"Species richness\u2013productivity patterns differ between N-, P-, and K-limited wetlands","volume":"84","author":"Wassen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1344","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.12.239","article-title":"Dose-dependence of growth and ecophysiological responses of plants to biochar","volume":"658","author":"Gale","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1940","DOI":"10.1007\/s42729-024-01663-7","article-title":"Biochar mitigates the Harmful effects of Drought in soybean through changes in Leaf Development, Stomatal Regulation, and Gas Exchange","volume":"24","author":"Nobre","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plaphy.2024.109145","article-title":"Biochar coating promoted rice growth under drought stress through modulating photosynthetic apparatus, chloroplast ultrastructure, stomatal traits and ROS homeostasis","volume":"216","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Plant Physiol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3113","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.13202","article-title":"Long term co-application of biochar and fertilizer could increase soybean yield under continuous cropping: Insights from photosynthetic physiology","volume":"104","author":"Wu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2242","DOI":"10.1016\/S2095-3119(19)62563-3","article-title":"Effect of biochar on grain yield and leaf photosynthetic physiology of soybean cultivars with different phosphorus efficiencies","volume":"18","author":"Qian","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Integr. Agric."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Y.F., Ahmed, W., Wang, G., Ye, C.H., Li, S.C., Zhao, M.W., Zhang, J.H., Wang, J.J., Salmen, S.H., and Wu, L.Z. (2024). Transcriptome profiling reveals the impact of various levels of biochar application on the growth of flue-cured tobacco plants. BMC Plant Biol., 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12870-024-05321-z"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1080\/10549811.2011.532018","article-title":"Relationship Between Height Growth and Foliar Nutrient N and P Concentration in a Eucalyptus grandis Plantation in Northeastern Argentina","volume":"30","author":"Burns","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Sustain. For."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, R.P., Li, L.Y., Zhang, D.J., Zhang, J., Wang, C.K., and Quan, X.K. (2024). Response of Photosynthetic Capacity to Climate Warming and Its Variation among 11 Provenances of Dahurian Larch (Larix gmelinii). Forests, 15.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202404.1485.v1"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1250","DOI":"10.1111\/nph.17651","article-title":"Quantitative assessment of the effects of biochar amendment on photosynthetic carbon assimilation and dynamics in a rice\u2013soil system","volume":"232","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"New Phytol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1002\/pits.20234","article-title":"Effect sizes, confidence intervals, and confidence intervals for effect sizes","volume":"44","author":"Thompson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychol. Sch."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thompson, B. (2008). Computing and interpreting effect sizes, confidence intervals, and confidence intervals for effect sizes. Best Practices in Quantitative Methods, SAGE Publications, Inc.","DOI":"10.4135\/9781412995627.d21"}],"container-title":["Plants"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2223-7747\/15\/13\/2025\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T17:55:46Z","timestamp":1782842146000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2223-7747\/15\/13\/2025"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["plants15132025"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/plants15132025","relation":{},"ISSN":["2223-7747"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2223-7747","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]]}}}