{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T17:47:06Z","timestamp":1785433626564,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784678400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100032147","name":"University of Limpopo","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["N624"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N624"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100032147","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["N624"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N624"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/017p87168","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Plants"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Tuberculosis (TB) remains a major global health challenge, compounded by rising drug resistance. Traditional medicinal plants used for TB-related symptoms represent a valuable yet underexplored source of potential antimycobacterial agents. In this study, the phytochemical content and biological activities of Dombeya rotundifolia and Lippia javanica were evaluated, and antimycobacterial compounds were isolated through bioassay-guided fractionation. Plant leaves were collected, extracted with solvents of varying polarity, and screened for phenolics and flavonoids. Antioxidant activity was assessed using DPPH and ferric reducing power assays, antimycobacterial activity was tested against Mycobacterium smegmatis, anti-inflammatory activity was determined by the egg albumin denaturation method, and cytotoxicity was evaluated in THP-1 cells using the MTT assay. Extraction yields varied, with water extracts of L. javanica showing the highest yield and hexane extracts of D. rotundifolia the lowest. Both plants contained bioactive phytochemicals with measurable antioxidant activity, while acetone and dichloromethane extracts of D. rotundifolia displayed the strongest antimycobacterial activity with MIC values of 0.16 mg\/mL. Cytotoxicity assays indicated moderate toxicity at higher extract concentrations. Bioassay-guided isolation led to the identification of two fatty acid fractions with tentative characterization, which showed notable antimycobacterial activity (MIC 0.25 mg\/mL). These findings provide preliminary support for the ethnomedicinal use of D. rotundifolia in respiratory conditions traditionally associated with tuberculosis and suggest a potential contribution of its fatty acids to its observed antimycobacterial activity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/plants15142233","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T09:20:39Z","timestamp":1784712039000},"page":"2233","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Phytochemical Analysis and Bioactivities of Dombeya rotundifolia and Lippia javanica"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9177-0147","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matsilane L.","family":"Mashilo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Science and Agriculture, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Limpopo, Private Bag X1106, Sovenga 0727, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3082-6850","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mashilo M.","family":"Matotoka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Science and Agriculture, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Limpopo, Private Bag X1106, Sovenga 0727, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0754-2729","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ofentse","family":"Mazimba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chemical and Forensic Sciences, Botswana International University of Science and Technology, Private Bag 16, Palapye 10017, Botswana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8076-083X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peter","family":"Masoko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Science and Agriculture, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Limpopo, Private Bag X1106, Sovenga 0727, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2025, November 17). Global Tuberculosis Report 2022. Available online: https:\/\/iris.who.int\/bitstream\/handle\/10665\/363752\/9789240061729-eng.pdf?sequence=1."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1342","DOI":"10.1039\/C9MD00057G","article-title":"Drug-resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Where we stand","volume":"10","author":"Mabhula","year":"2019","journal-title":"MedChemComm"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1186\/s41182-020-00256-1","article-title":"Ethnobotany, ethnopharmacology, and phytochemistry of traditional medicinal plants used in the management of symptoms of tuberculosis in East Africa: A systematic review","volume":"48","author":"Obakiro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Health"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1578","DOI":"10.1111\/jam.15088","article-title":"Potent anti-mycobacterial and immunomodulatory activity of some bioactive molecules of Indian ethnomedicinal plants that have the potential to enter in TB management","volume":"131","author":"Sarangi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1106753","article-title":"A diarylquinoline drug active on the ATP synthase of Mycobacterium tuberculosis","volume":"307","author":"Andries","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1001","DOI":"10.1021\/acsinfecdis.9b00048","article-title":"Direct inhibition of MmpL3 by novel antitubercular compounds","volume":"5","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibs.2022.03.017","article-title":"Activity-based annotation: The emergence of systems biochemistry","volume":"47","author":"Rhee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trends Biochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"1","article-title":"African medicinal plants that can control or cure tuberculosis","volume":"4","author":"Anochie","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Dev. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1002\/mco2.82","article-title":"Advances in adjunct therapy against tuberculosis: Deciphering the emerging role of phytochemicals","volume":"2","author":"Fatima","year":"2021","journal-title":"MedComm"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1016\/S0254-6299(15)31139-X","article-title":"Pharmacological and phytochemical properties of Dombeya rotundifolia","volume":"67","author":"Reid","year":"2001","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.5455\/jcmr.20181001042544","article-title":"Dombeya rotundifolia (Hochst.) Planch.: Review of its botany, medicinal uses, phytochemistry and biological activities","volume":"9","author":"Maroyi","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Complement. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.5530\/pj.2019.11.128","article-title":"Phytochemical constituents and antioxidant potential of crude extracts from Lippia Javanica (Burm. f.) Spreng Leaves","volume":"11","author":"Osunsanmi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pharmacogn. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.62940\/als.v12i1.3214","article-title":"Phytochemistry and pharmacology potential of Lippia javanica: A bibliometric and systematic review","volume":"12","author":"Shode","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"2392","article-title":"Use, conservation and present availability status of ethnomedicinal plants of Matebele-Village in the Limpopo Province, South Africa","volume":"12","author":"Semenya","year":"2013","journal-title":"Afr. J. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"586247","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/586247","article-title":"Validation of antimycobacterial plants used by traditional healers in three districts of the Limpopo province (South Africa)","volume":"2013","author":"Masoko","year":"2013","journal-title":"Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1080\/14786410802250037","article-title":"Bioactive compounds from Lippia javanica and Hoslundia opposita","volume":"22","author":"Mujovo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plipres.2007.10.002","article-title":"New advances in fatty acids as antimalarial, antimycobacterial and antifungal agents","volume":"47","author":"Carballeira","year":"2008","journal-title":"Prog. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.26.2.164","article-title":"Growth of group IV mycobacteria on medium containing various saturated and unsaturated fatty acids","volume":"26","author":"Saito","year":"1984","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11173","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules170911173","article-title":"Chemical composition of hexane extract of Citrus aurantifolia and anti-Mycobacterium tuberculosis activity of some of its constituents","volume":"17","author":"Alvarez","year":"2012","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107787","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2025.107787","article-title":"Plant-based natural compounds as novel therapeutic avenues against tuberculosis: Emphasis on curcumin","volume":"206","author":"Amingad","year":"2025","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1443","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2023.07.016","article-title":"Deciphering the emerging role of phytocompounds: Implications in the management of drug-resistant tuberculosis and ATDs-induced hepatic damage","volume":"16","author":"Ansari","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Infect. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"1","article-title":"A review on the alkaloids an important therapeutic compound from plants","volume":"3","author":"Roy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Plant Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4103\/jpbs.JPBS_175_19","article-title":"Preparation of medicinal plants: Basic extraction and fractionation procedures for experimental purposes","volume":"12","author":"Abubakar","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Bioallied Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2135","DOI":"10.1080\/10942912.2018.1497059","article-title":"Major chemical constituents and antioxidant activities of different extracts from the peduncles of Hovenia acerba Lindl","volume":"21","author":"Peng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Prop."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Knez, E. (2025). Evaluation of spectrophotometric methods for assessing antioxidant potential in plant food samples\u2014A critical approach. Appl. Sci., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/app15115925"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andriopoulos, V., and Kornaros, M. (2024). Microalgal phenolics: Systematic review with a focus on methodological assessment and meta-analysis. Mar. Drugs, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/md22100460"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.5530\/pres.13.4.14","article-title":"Seasonal Variation of Phytochemicals in Four Selected Medicinal Plants","volume":"13","author":"Mwamatope","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pharmacogn. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4539","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.2432","article-title":"The effect of incorporating herbal (Lippia javanica) infusion on the phenolic, physicochemical, and sensorial properties of fruit wine","volume":"9","author":"Chawafambira","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1037","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apjtb.2016.10.004","article-title":"Phytochemical and antioxidant properties of different solvent extracts of Kirkia wilmsii tubers","volume":"6","author":"Chigayo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"2438","article-title":"Antioxidant activity and total phenolic content of medicinal plants associated with prevention and treatment of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases","volume":"4","author":"Gan","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Med. Plants Res."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"210","article-title":"The role and place of medicinal plants in the strategies for disease prevention","volume":"10","author":"Sofowora","year":"2013","journal-title":"Afr. J. Tradit. Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar, M., Singh, S.K., Singh, P.P., Singh, V.K., Rai, A.C., Srivastava, A.K., Shukla, L., Kesawat, M.S., Kumar Jaiswal, A., and Chung, S.M. (2021). Potential anti-Mycobacterium tuberculosis activity of plant secondary metabolites: Insight with molecular docking interactions. Antioxidants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox10121990"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molcel.2010.10.006","article-title":"The heat shock response: Life on the verge of death","volume":"40","author":"Richter","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3843","article-title":"Fever and the thermal regulation of immunity: The immune system feels the heat","volume":"15","author":"Evans","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kudumela, R.G., McGaw, L.J., and Masoko, P. (2018). Antibacterial interactions, anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic effects of four medicinal plant species. BMC Complement. Altern. Med., 18.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12906-018-2264-z"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1479","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0030-1250027","article-title":"Potential of Cameroonian plants and derived products against microbial infections: A review","volume":"76","author":"Kuete","year":"2010","journal-title":"Planta Med."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/2515690X18762736","article-title":"In vitro assessment of selected medicinal plants used by the Bapedi Community in South Africa for treatment of bacterial infections","volume":"23","author":"Kudumela","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Evid. Based Integr. Med."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"2777","article-title":"Antibacterial activity of selected medicinal plants used in ethnoveterinary medicine","volume":"7","author":"Mahlo","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Med. Plants Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elisha, I.L., Jambalang, A.R., Botha, F.S., Buys, E.M., McGaw, L.J., and Eloff, J.N. (2017). Potency and selectivity indices of acetone leaf extracts of nine selected South African trees against six opportunistic Enterobacteriaceae isolates from commercial chicken eggs. BMC Complement. Altern. Med., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12906-017-1597-3"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khumalo, G.P., Sadgrove, N.J., Van Vuuren, S.F., and Van Wyk, B.E. (2021). South Africa\u2019s best bark medicines prescribed at the Johannesburg muthi markets for skin, gut, and lung infections: MIC\u2019s and brine shrimp lethality. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10060681"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2004.11.010","article-title":"Phytochemical and pharmacological screening of Sterculiaceae species and isolation of antibacterial compounds","volume":"97","author":"Reid","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"40","article-title":"Constituents of the stem bark of Dombeya rotundifolia Hochst","volume":"8","author":"Ndwigah","year":"2005","journal-title":"East. Cent. Afr. J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101093","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plipres.2021.101093","article-title":"Antibacterial fatty acids: An update of possible mechanisms of action and implications in the development of the next-generation of antibacterial agents","volume":"82","author":"Medina","year":"2021","journal-title":"Prog. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yoon, B.K., Jackman, J.A., Valle-Gonz\u00e1lez, E.R., and Cho, N.J. (2018). Antibacterial free fatty acids and monoglycerides: Biological activities, experimental testing, and therapeutic applications. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19041114"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"119","article-title":"Antibacterial and radical scavenging activity of fatty acids from Paullinia pinnata L.","volume":"5","author":"Kofi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pharmacogn. Mag."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xie, Y., Peng, Q., Ji, Y., Xie, A., Yang, L., Mu, S., Li, Z., He, T., Xiao, Y., and Zhao, J. (2021). Isolation and identification of antibacterial bioactive compounds from Bacillus megaterium L2. Front. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.645484"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bravo-Santano, N., Ellis, J.K., Calle, Y., Keun, H.C., Behrends, V., and Letek, M. (2019). Intracellular Staphylococcus aureus elicits the production of host very long-chain saturated fatty acids with antimicrobial activity. Metabolites, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo9070148"},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"2321","article-title":"Estimation of total phenol, tannin, alkaloid and flavonoid in Hibiscus tiliaceus Linn. wood extracts","volume":"2","author":"Tambe","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.3329\/bjp.v11i3.27663","article-title":"Ferric reducing anti-oxidant power assay in plant extract","volume":"11","author":"Vijayalakshmi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bangladesh J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.3329\/bjp.v12i4.32798","article-title":"Assessment of anti-arthritic potential of Ephedra gerardiana by in vitro and in vivo methods","volume":"12","author":"Uttra","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bangladesh J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"115","article-title":"In-vitro anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic activity of Oryza sativa Var. Joha rice (an aromatic indigenous rice of Assam)","volume":"15","author":"Rahman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am.-Eurasian J. Agric. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2006-957563","article-title":"A sensitive and quick microplate method to determine the minimal inhibitory concentration of plant extracts for bacteria","volume":"64","author":"Eloff","year":"1998","journal-title":"Planta Med."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-1759(83)90303-4","article-title":"Rapid colorimetric assay for cellular growth and survival: Application to proliferation and cytotoxicity assays","volume":"65","author":"Mosmann","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2014.08.002","article-title":"THP-1 cell line: An in vitro cell model for immune modulation approach","volume":"23","author":"Chanput","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2018.11.003","article-title":"Cytotoxicity and global transcriptional responses induced by zinc oxide nanoparticles NM 110 in PMA-differentiated THP-1 cells","volume":"308","author":"Safar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/S0254-6299(16)30456-2","article-title":"Extraction of antibacterial compounds from Combretum microphyllum (Combretaceae)","volume":"68","author":"Kotze","year":"2002","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Bot."}],"container-title":["Plants"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2223-7747\/15\/14\/2233\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,24]],"date-time":"2026-07-24T04:21:48Z","timestamp":1784866908000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2223-7747\/15\/14\/2233"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["plants15142233"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/plants15142233","relation":{},"ISSN":["2223-7747"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2223-7747","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]]}}}