{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T11:12:39Z","timestamp":1789038759846,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788998400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["31750110466"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["31750110466"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["31750110466"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["31750110466"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Plants"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The timberline region of the Western Himalaya is a crucial ecological transition area highly sensitive to climate changes, which significantly influence vegetation patterns, soil formation, and carbon dynamics. This study aimed to investigate the spatial and altitudinal changes in soil organic carbon (SOC) across different topographic orientations and to evaluate machine-learning models for spatial SOC prediction in the timberline ecotone (2100\u20133300 m) of the Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary. Through systematic random sampling across 100 m elevation bands, composite soil samples were collected from three aspects (North-East, South-West, and North-West) at two depths (0\u201315 cm and 15\u201330 cm) and analyzed alongside topographic, spectral, and climatic covariates. Results indicated that SOC trends varied significantly by aspect; the North-East aspect exhibited a considerable increase in SOC with elevation, while the North-West and South-West sides responded differently. Furthermore, Digital Soil Mapping using the Random Forest (RF) model outperformed Support Vector Machine and XGBoost, explaining 62% of surface and 74% of subsurface SOC variability. In conclusion, aspect-induced microclimatic gradients play a major role in controlling soil characteristics near the Himalayan timberline, and machine-learning models like RF can successfully capture these complex spatial patterns. Consequently, it is recommended that the established baseline SOC maps be utilized as reference points for future climate-change monitoring, carbon accounting, and directing conservation strategies in high-altitude forests.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/plants15182775","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T10:27:21Z","timestamp":1789036041000},"page":"2775","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Variation in Soil Organic Carbon Along an Altitudinal Gradient Across Different Aspects in the Timberline Zone of the Western Himalaya, India"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Renu","family":"Rawal","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Botany, Pt. B.D. Pandey Campus Bageshwar, Soban Singh Jeena University Almora, Almora 263601, Uttarakhand, India"},{"name":"G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment (GBP-NIHE), Kosi-Katarmal, Almora 263643, Uttarakhand, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-9734-641X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ankur","family":"Sharma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Forest Ecology & Climate Change Division, ICFRE-Forest Research Institute, P.O. New Forest, Dehradun 248006, Uttarakhand, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5687-029X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gaurav","family":"Mishra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Excellence on Sustainable Land Management, Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, P.O. New Forest, Dehradun 248006, Uttarakhand, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Tanay","family":"Barman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Excellence on Sustainable Land Management, Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, P.O. New Forest, Dehradun 248006, Uttarakhand, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2863-9714","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ravi K.","family":"Chaturvedi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Integrative Conservation, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Menglun, Mengla, Jinghong 666303, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Lalit M.","family":"Tewari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Botany, DSB Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital 263001, Uttarakhand, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.18520\/cs\/v120\/i5\/859-871","article-title":"Indian Himalayan timberline ecotone in response to climate change\u2013initial findings","volume":"120","author":"Singh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"287","article-title":"Soil degradation under a changing climate: Management from traditional to nano-approaches","volume":"64","author":"Brevik","year":"2024","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barman, T., Paul, S., Samant, S.S., Pangtey, D., Chauhan, A., Thakur, S., Tewari, L.M., and Lata, S. (2025). Population ecology and habitat suitability modelling of Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus in relation to climate change in the Himalaya. Proc. Indian Natl. Sci. Acad., 1\u201321.","DOI":"10.1007\/s43538-025-00495-y"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1007\/s11676-016-0330-2","article-title":"Investigation of phytosociological parameters and physico-chemical properties of soil in tropical semi-evergreen forests of Eastern Himalaya","volume":"28","author":"Mishra","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"101082","article-title":"Elevation and management-induced vegetation and soil carbon shift in Eastern Himalayan forests: Advancing nature-based sustainability solutions (NbS)","volume":"29","author":"Tripathi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Sustain. Indic."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e40797","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e40797","article-title":"Impact of climate change on the Himalayan alpine treeline vegetation","volume":"10","author":"Kumar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1080\/02827581.2020.1871065","article-title":"Soil nutrients concentration along altitudinal gradients in Indian Western Himalaya","volume":"36","author":"Kewlani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Scand. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mishra, G., Giri, K., Nath, A.J., and Francaviglia, R. (2023). Soil Carbon Dynamics in Indian Himalayan Region, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-99-3303-7"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mangral, Z.A., Islam, S.U., Tariq, L., Kaur, S., Ahmad, R., Malik, A.H., Goel, S., Baishya, R., Barik, S.K., and Dar, T.U.H. (2023). Altitudinal gradient drives significant changes in soil physico-chemical and eco-physiological properties of Rhododendron anthopogon: A case study from Himalaya. Front. For. Glob. Change, 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/ffgc.2023.1181299"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2016.12.015","article-title":"Himalayan treeline soil and foliar C:N:P stoichiometry indicate nutrient shortage with elevation","volume":"291","author":"Oelmann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3104","DOI":"10.1007\/s11629-025-9910-y","article-title":"Machine learning-based soil depth estimation from the diverse landscapes of Nagaland, North-Eastern Himalayas","volume":"23","author":"Mishra","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Mt. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1007\/s44288-026-00614-2","article-title":"Mapping land use transitions in Sambhal district using spatiotemporal analysis and artificial neural networks","volume":"4","author":"Sharma","year":"2026","journal-title":"Discov. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Hengl, T., and MacMillan, R.A. (2018). Predictive Soil Mapping with R, OpenGeoHub Foundation."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suleymanov, R., Yurkevich, M., Bakhmet, O., Popova, T., Kungurtsev, A., Zakirov, D., Novikova, S., Kovalenko, V., Fedorenko, Y., and Suleymanov, A. (2025). Interpretable machine learning and remote sensing data reveal soil biogeochemistry patterns in agricultural systems. Land, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/land14091881"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Moharana, P.C., Mishra, G., Keshavarzi, A., and Suleymanov, A. (2026). Harnessing Digital Mapping for Soil Resource Monitoring and Assessment, CRC Press. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1007\/s11629-023-8205-4","article-title":"Influence of edaphic factors on distribution and condition of Himalayan silver birch (Betula utilis D. Don) communities in the northwestern Indian Himalayas","volume":"21","author":"Dasila","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mt. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharma, R., Singh, S., Huria, A., Chauhan, A., and Barman, T. (2024). Sustainable land management practices for healthy ecosystem services: A cornerstone of biodiversity sustenance in the Indian Northwestern Himalaya. Sustainable Land Management in India, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-97-5223-2_14"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1007\/s11355-023-00570-w","article-title":"Habitat distribution modeling of the Pinus gerardiana under projected climate change in the North-Western Himalaya, India","volume":"19","author":"Paul","year":"2023","journal-title":"Landsc. Ecol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.64873\/JOSI.v35.i1-2.55-72","article-title":"Population assessment, indigenous uses, and threat status of orchids in ban oak (Quercus oblongata D. Don) forests of Himachal Pradesh, Northwestern Himalaya","volume":"35","author":"Barman","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Orchid Soc. India"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"225","article-title":"Plant species diversity and rarity patterns along altitude range covering treeline ecotone in Uttarakhand: Conservation implications","volume":"59","author":"Rawal","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trop. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"42","article-title":"Forest Vegetation Patterns Along an Altitudinal Gradient in Sub-alpine Zone of West Himalaya, India","volume":"2","author":"Gairola","year":"2008","journal-title":"Afr. J. Plant Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rai, I.D., Singh, G., Pandey, A., and Rawat, G.S. (2019). Ecology of treeline vegetation in western Himalaya: Anthropogenic and climatic influences. Tropical Ecosystems: Structure, Functions and Challenges in the Face of Global Change, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-13-8249-9_9"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3339","DOI":"10.1007\/s11756-023-01530-3","article-title":"Forest dynamics along altitudinal gradient covering treeline ecotone of Indian Western Himalaya","volume":"78","author":"Rawal","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biologia"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126588","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnc.2024.126588","article-title":"Rarities pattern of vascular plants in the high-altitude forests of Indian western Himalaya: Conservation implications","volume":"79","author":"Rawal","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Nat. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1007\/s44372-025-00381-3","article-title":"Pattern of forest structure and species regeneration along with elevation gradients and aspects in evergreen oak forest belt of the Western Himalaya","volume":"2","author":"Rawal","year":"2025","journal-title":"Discov. Plants"},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"117","article-title":"Physical properties of soils in relation to forest composition in moist temperate valley slopes of the Central Western Himalaya","volume":"26","author":"Sharma","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. For. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16089","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-42825-0","article-title":"Elevation-driven influences on soil nutrient dynamics and vegetation structure in temperate subalpine forests of the Western Himalaya","volume":"16","author":"Rawal","year":"2026","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1097\/00010694-193401000-00003","article-title":"An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method","volume":"37","author":"Walkley","year":"1934","journal-title":"Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1965","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.1276","article-title":"Very high-resolution interpolated climate surfaces for global land areas","volume":"25","author":"Hijmans","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol. A J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1002\/saj2.20056","article-title":"Estimating soil organic carbon and pH in Jilin Province using Landsat and ancillary data","volume":"84","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01433","DOI":"10.1002\/ecm.1433","article-title":"Influence of climate, soil, and land cover on plant species distribution in the European Alps","volume":"91","author":"Chauvier","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecol. Monogr."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2255","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.13234","article-title":"Soil carbon and nitrogen stocks in forests along an altitudinal gradient in the eastern Himalayas and a meta-analysis of global data","volume":"22","author":"Tashi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.145292","article-title":"Patterns and driving factors of biomass carbon and soil organic carbon stock in the Indian Himalayan region","volume":"770","author":"Ahirwal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119746","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2021.119746","article-title":"Influence of environmental factors on tree species diversity and composition in the Indian western Himalaya","volume":"503","author":"Thakur","year":"2022","journal-title":"For. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2155","DOI":"10.1007\/s11629-015-3773-6","article-title":"The influence of elevation on soil properties and forest litter in the Siliceous Moncayo Massif, SW Europe","volume":"13","author":"Ruiz","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Mt. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"730","article-title":"Impact of altitude on soil physical and chemical properties in Sra Ghurgai (Takatu mountain range) Quetta, Balochistan","volume":"5","author":"Saeed","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Eng. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Manral, V., Bargali, K., Bargali, S.S., Karki, H., and Chaturvedi, R.K. (2023). Seasonal dynamics of soil microbial biomass C, N and P along an altitudinal gradient in central Himalaya, India. Sustainability, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/su15021651"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.5194\/soil-10-813-2024","article-title":"Soil organic matter interactions along the elevation gradient of the James Ross Island (Antarctica)","volume":"10","author":"Valtera","year":"2024","journal-title":"Soil"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1007\/s44372-026-00713-x","article-title":"Ecological assessment and germination patterns of Rhododendron arboreum in the Himalaya for conservation strategies","volume":"3","author":"Kumar","year":"2026","journal-title":"Discov. Plants"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1007\/s10669-012-9420-7","article-title":"Chemical properties of soils in relation to forest composition in moist temperate valley slopes of Garhwal Himalaya, India","volume":"32","author":"Gairola","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environmentalist"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2011.05.008","article-title":"Concentration and stock of carbon in the soils affected by land uses and climates in the western Himalaya, India","volume":"87","author":"Singh","year":"2011","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.5958\/2455-7129.2020.00006.0","article-title":"Soil Chemical Properties of Cedrus deodara (Roxb) G. Don. Forest Soil in Garhwal Himalaya, India","volume":"39","author":"Digvijay","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Tree Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"195","article-title":"Changes in the Physico-Chemical Properties of Soil in Different Deodarforests of Garhwal Himalaya","volume":"12","author":"Ramola","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Plant Dev. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70306","DOI":"10.1002\/lno.70306","article-title":"Molecular evidence for depth-dependent microbial transformation of dissolved organic matter into carboxyl-rich alicyclic molecules in coastal marginal seas","volume":"71","author":"Liu","year":"2026","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geodrs.2017.11.004","article-title":"Soil carbon stocks along elevational gradients in Eastern Himalayan Mountain forests","volume":"12","author":"Simon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geoderma Reg."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1007\/s40415-023-00885-w","article-title":"Ecological assessment and suitability ranges of Ban oak (Quercus oblongata D. Don) in Chamba district, Himalayas: Implications for present and future conservation","volume":"46","author":"Barman","year":"2023","journal-title":"Braz. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2018.12.028","article-title":"Changes in soil properties and soil organic carbon stocks along an elevation gradient at Mount Bambouto, Central Africa","volume":"175","author":"Nghonda","year":"2019","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2017.04.007","article-title":"Elevational gradient affects functional fractions of soil organic carbon and aggregates stability in a Tibetan alpine meadow","volume":"156","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1002\/jpln.200900027","article-title":"Soil organic-matter stocks and characteristics along an Alpine elevation gradient","volume":"173","author":"Djukic","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5218","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-60594-8","article-title":"Patterns and drivers of soil microbial carbon use efficiency across soil depths in forest ecosystems","volume":"16","author":"Pei","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1002\/ldr.70149","article-title":"Altitudinal patterns of soil organic carbon and its drivers in the mountains of southeastern Tibet","volume":"37","author":"Liu","year":"2026","journal-title":"Land Degrad. Dev."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8750","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1914140117","article-title":"Depth-dependent soil mixing persists across climate zones","volume":"117","author":"Gray","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2422","DOI":"10.1016\/S2095-3119(21)63692-4","article-title":"Predicting soil depth in a large and complex area using machine learning and environmental correlations","volume":"21","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Integr. Agric."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"064005","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/ab7df9","article-title":"Comparative assessment of environmental variables and machine learning algorithms for maize yield prediction in the US Midwest","volume":"15","author":"Kang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1611","DOI":"10.1002\/saj2.20453","article-title":"Empirical relationships between environmental factors and soil organic carbon produce comparable prediction accuracy to machine learning","volume":"86","author":"Mishra","year":"2022","journal-title":"Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"e0170421","article-title":"Digital soil mapping using machine learning algorithms in a tropical mountainous area","volume":"42","author":"Meier","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Ci\u00eancia Solo"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumaraperumal, R., Pazhanivelan, S., Geethalakshmi, V., Nivas Raj, M., Muthumanickam, D., Kaliaperumal, R., Shankar, V., Nair, A.M., Yadav, M.K., and Tarun Kshatriya, T.V. (2022). Comparison of machine learning-based prediction of qualitative and quantitative digital soil-mapping approaches for Eastern Districts of Tamil Nadu, India. Land, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/land11122279"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, C., Wei, Y., Zhu, F., Lu, W., Fang, Z., Li, Z., and Pan, J. (2022). Digital mapping of soil organic carbon based on machine learning and regression kriging. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22228997"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, X., Xue, J., Chen, S., Wang, N., Shi, Z., Huang, Y., and Zhuo, Z. (2022). Digital mapping of soil organic carbon with machine learning in dryland of Northeast and North plain China. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14102504"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2017.05.048","article-title":"Mapping stocks of soil organic carbon and soil total nitrogen in Liaoning Province of China","volume":"305","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1080\/03650340.2015.1051472","article-title":"Predicting soil organic carbon density using auxiliary environmental variables in northern Iran","volume":"62","author":"Falahatkar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch. Agron. Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101699","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cosust.2026.101699","article-title":"Nature-based solutions for environmental sustainability: Enhancing the resilience of mountain ecosystems in the era of climate change","volume":"83","author":"Barman","year":"2026","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00260","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geodrs.2020.e00260","article-title":"Spatial prediction of soil organic carbon using machine learning techniques in western Iran","volume":"21","author":"Mahmoudzadeh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Geoderma Reg."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2018.09.006","article-title":"Digital mapping of soil properties using multiple machine learning in a semi-arid region, central Iran","volume":"338","author":"Zeraatpisheh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adeniyi, O.D., Brenning, A., Bernini, A., Brenna, S., and Maerker, M. (2023). Digital mapping of soil properties using ensemble machine learning approaches in an agricultural lowland area of Lombardy, Italy. Land, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/land12020494"}],"container-title":["Plants"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2223-7747\/15\/18\/2775\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T10:51:29Z","timestamp":1789037489000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2223-7747\/15\/18\/2775"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]]},"references-count":65,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["plants15182775"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/plants15182775","relation":{},"ISSN":["2223-7747"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2223-7747","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]]}}}