{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T05:02:38Z","timestamp":1789448558583,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,13]],"date-time":"2026-09-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789257600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000199","name":"US Department of Agriculture","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["NACA 58-5082-1-009"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NACA 58-5082-1-009"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000199","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["NACA 58-5082-1-009"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NACA 58-5082-1-009"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01na82s61","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Plants"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cyanobacterial toxins (cyanotoxins) produced in harmful algal blooms are toxic to eukaryotic cells. Plants exposed to cyanotoxins through irrigation can accumulate toxins and have decreased yields, so an understanding of the effects of cyanotoxins on major crop plants is important. Although the effects of some cyanotoxins on growth and photosynthesis of common agricultural crops have been studied, how cyanotoxin uptake may be impacted by differences in root anatomy has not been studied. Hence, we exposed corn and rice, plants lacking and possessing a constitutively well-developed root exodermis, respectively, to cyanobacterial extracts or pure anatoxin-a to test how root structure impacts cyanotoxin sensitivity. We conducted three comparative experiments: (1) a pot study in which corn and rice were watered with cyanobacterial lysed-cell extracts, (2) a hydroponic study wherein plants were treated with cyanobacterial extracts, and (3) a study wherein plants were grown in pots and watered with pure anatoxin-a. We hypothesized that the constitutive exodermis produced by rice would make rice plants less sensitive to cyanotoxins than corn. However, for all three experiments, photosynthesis, chlorophyll, and growth of corn and rice plants were reduced when roots were exposed to either extracts or anatoxin-a, compared to non-treated controls, although corn plants were affected sooner and\/or more dramatically than rice. Our results indicate the root exodermis of rice did not prevent cyanotoxin uptake by roots nor prevent cyanotoxin effects.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/plants15182803","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T09:34:01Z","timestamp":1789378441000},"page":"2803","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Comparison of Corn and Rice Sensitivity to Cyanobacterial Extract and Anatoxin-a in Soil and Hydroponic Media"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Clare T.","family":"Muller","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Scott A.","family":"Heckathorn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2755-5036","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jennifer K.","family":"Boldt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Toledo, OH\u00a043606, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1648-7","article-title":"Widespread Global Increase in Intense Lake Phytoplankton Blooms since the 1980s","volume":"574","author":"Ho","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hal.2016.02.002","article-title":"Health Impacts from Cyanobacteria Harmful Algae Blooms: Implications for the North American Great Lakes","volume":"54","author":"Carmichael","year":"2016","journal-title":"Harmful Algae"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2017.05.031","article-title":"Reeling in the Damages: Harmful Algal Blooms\u2019 Impact on Lake Erie\u2019s Recreational Fishing Industry","volume":"199","author":"Wolf","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.5864\/d2017-021","article-title":"Food Crops Irrigated with Cyanobacteria-Contaminated Water: An Emerging Public Health Issue in Canada","volume":"60","author":"Miller","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Health Rev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110590","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2020.110590","article-title":"Anatoxin-a: Overview on a Harmful Cyanobacterial Neurotoxin from the Environmental Scale to the Molecular Target","volume":"193","author":"Colas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jglr.2015.01.001","article-title":"Challenges in Tracking Harmful Algal Blooms: A Synthesis of Evidence from Lake Erie","volume":"41","author":"Ho","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Gt. Lakes Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campos, A., Redouane, E.M., Freitas, M., Amaral, S., Azevedo, T., Loss, L., M\u00e1th\u00e9, C., Mohamed, Z.A., Oudra, B., and Vasconcelos, V. (2021). Impacts of Microcystins on Morphological and Physiological Parameters of Agricultural Plants: A Review. Plants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants10040639"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115966","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2020.115966","article-title":"Phytotoxicity and Bioconcentration of Microcystins in Agricultural Plants: Meta-Analysis and Risk Assessment","volume":"272","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melaram, R., Newton, A.R., and Chafin, J. (2022). Microcystin Contamination and Toxicity: Implications for Agriculture and Public Health. Toxins, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins14050350"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heckathorn, S.A., Muller, C.T., Thomas, M.D., Vining, E.P., Bigioni, S., Elsie, C., Franklin, J.T., New, E.R., and Boldt, J.K. (2024). Cyanobacterial Cultures, Cell Extracts, and Individual Toxins Decrease Photosynthesis in the Terrestrial Plants Lactuca Sativa and Zea Mays. Plants, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants13223190"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2009.01.028","article-title":"Physiological Changes in Triticum Durum, Zea Mays, Pisum Sativum and Lens Esculenta Cultivars, Caused by Irrigation with Water Contaminated with Microcystins: A Laboratory Experimental Approach","volume":"53","author":"Saqrane","year":"2009","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13942","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-020-11642-x","article-title":"Effect of Microcystins at Different Rice Growth Stages on Its Yield, Quality, and Safety","volume":"28","author":"Liang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147948","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.147948","article-title":"Spray Irrigation with Microcystins-Rich Water Affects Plant Performance from the Microscopic to the Functional Level and Food Safety of Spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.)","volume":"789","author":"Tsoumalakou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2004.01.011","article-title":"Effects of Microcystins on the Growth and the Activity of Superoxide Dismutase and Peroxidase of Rape (Brassica napus L.) and Rice (Oryza sativa L.)","volume":"43","author":"Chen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-016-7822-7","article-title":"Analysis of the Use of Microcystin-Contaminated Water in the Growth and Nutritional Quality of the Root-Vegetable, Daucus Carota","volume":"24","author":"Machado","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2015.02.002","article-title":"Effects of Microcystin-LR, Cylindrospermopsin and a Microcystin-LR\/Cylindrospermopsin Mixture on Growth, Oxidative Stress and Mineral Content in Lettuce Plants (Lactuca sativa L.)","volume":"116","author":"Freitas","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Llana-Ruiz-Cabello, M., Jos, A., Came\u00e1n, A., Oliveira, F., Barreiro, A., Machado, J., Azevedo, J., Pinto, E., Almeida, A., and Campos, A. (2019). Analysis of the Use of Cylindrospermopsin and\/or Microcystin-Contaminated Water in the Growth, Mineral Content, and Contamination of Spinacia Oleracea and Lactuca Sativa. Toxins, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins11110624"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2011.09.022","article-title":"Accumulation and Phytotoxicity of Microcystin-LR in Rice (Oryza sativa)","volume":"76","author":"Chen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2013.12.023","article-title":"Uptake of the Cyanobacterial Neurotoxin, Anatoxin-a, and Alterations in Oxidative Stress in the Submerged Aquatic Plant Ceratophyllum Demersum","volume":"101","author":"Ha","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2016.02.014","article-title":"Lettuce Irrigated with Contaminated Water: Photosynthetic Effects, Antioxidative Response and Bioaccumulation of Microcystin Congeners","volume":"128","author":"Chia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1052","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2015.10.004","article-title":"Evaluation of the Transfer and the Accumulation of Microcystins in Tomato (Solanum Lycopersicum Cultivar MicroTom) Tissues Using a Cyanobacterial Extract Containing Microcystins and the Radiolabeled Microcystin-LR (14 C-MC-LR)","volume":"541","author":"Corbel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"1379","article-title":"Microcystin-LR Bioaccumulation and Depuration Kinetics in Lettuce and Arugula: Human Health Risk Assessment","volume":"566\u2013567","author":"Chia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.1007\/s12571-022-01288-7","article-title":"Global Maize Production, Consumption and Trade: Trends and R&D Implications","volume":"14","author":"Erenstein","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Sec."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.12540","article-title":"An Overview of Global Rice Production, Supply, Trade, and Consumption","volume":"1324","author":"Muthayya","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bennetzen, J.L., and Hake, S.C. (2009). The Maize Root System: Morphology, Anatomy, and Genetics. Handbook of Maize: Its Biology, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-79418-1"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1111\/nph.13209","article-title":"Flood Adaptive Traits and Processes: An Overview","volume":"206","author":"Voesenek","year":"2015","journal-title":"New Phytol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1111\/nph.16375","article-title":"Regulation of Root Adaptive Anatomical and Morphological Traits during Low Soil Oxygen","volume":"229","author":"Pedersen","year":"2021","journal-title":"New Phytol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1007\/s10646-020-02196-2","article-title":"Chronic Effects of Microcystin-LR at Environmental Relevant Concentrations on Photosynthesis of Typha Angustifolia Linn","volume":"29","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122053","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2020.122053","article-title":"Combined Toxic Effects of Anatoxin-a and Microcystin-LR on Submerged Macrophytes and Biofilms","volume":"389","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pappas, D., Panou, M., Adamakis, I.-D.S., Gkelis, S., and Panteris, E. (2020). Beyond Microcystins: Cyanobacterial Extracts Induce Cytoskeletal Alterations in Rice Root Cells. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202011.0659.v1"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1837","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins6061837","article-title":"Exposure of Lycopersicon Esculentum to Microcystin-LR: Effects in the Leaf Proteome and Toxin Translocation from Water to Leaves and Fruits","volume":"6","author":"Campos","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jplph.2023.154118","article-title":"The Exodermis: A Forgotten but Promising Apoplastic Barrier","volume":"290","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Plant Physiol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1139\/b72-026","article-title":"Medium and Techniques for Induction and Growth of Monocotyledonous and Dicotyledonous Plant Cell Cultures","volume":"50","author":"Schenk","year":"1972","journal-title":"Can. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"852","DOI":"10.1007\/s43621-026-03190-0","article-title":"Soil Acidification Effects on Nutrient Dynamics in Paddy Rice Systems Including Causes Impacts and Sustainable Management Strategies","volume":"7","author":"Mmbaga","year":"2026","journal-title":"Discov. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(2026). R Core Team R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing 2026, R Foundation for Statistical Computing."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Goodrich, B., Gabry, J., Ali, I., and Brilleman, S. (2025). Rstanarm: Bayesian Applied Regression Modeling via Stan, Comprehensive R Archive Network."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1007\/s11222-007-9020-4","article-title":"Manipulating and Summarizing Posterior Simulations Using Random Variable Objects","volume":"17","author":"Kerman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Stat. Comput."}],"container-title":["Plants"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2223-7747\/15\/18\/2803\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T04:17:11Z","timestamp":1789445831000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2223-7747\/15\/18\/2803"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,13]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["plants15182803"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/plants15182803","relation":{},"ISSN":["2223-7747"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2223-7747","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,13]]}}}