{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T10:57:08Z","timestamp":1790852228290,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":109,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Department of Science and Technology of the Xizang Autonomous Region of Science and Technology Projects of Xizang Autonomous Region","award":["XZ202502ZY0039"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XZ202502ZY0039"]}]},{"name":"Department of Science and Technology of the Xizang Autonomous Region of Science and Technology Projects of Xizang Autonomous Region","award":["XZ202601ZY0128"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XZ202601ZY0128"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Plants"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Rising atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) enhances C3 photosynthesis and often improves intrinsic water-use efficiency, yet the extent to which this physiological potential translates into durable agronomic and ecological benefits remains uncertain. This review integrates evidence from controlled environments, free-air CO2 enrichment experiments, field studies, and modelling to evaluate the mechanisms, constraints, and applications of CO2 fertilization. We synthesize this evidence within a cascade-filtering framework that follows carbon gain from leaf photosynthesis through whole-plant allocation, resource limitation, environmental stress, and belowground processes to realized outcomes. Three major conclusions emerge from this review. First, leaf-level photosynthetic gains are progressively attenuated by photosynthetic acclimation, source\u2013sink limitation, nutrient shortage, and water and heat stress, so biomass and harvestable-yield responses are smaller and more variable. Second, yield gains can coincide with lower protein, iron, and zinc concentrations, making nutrient yield as important as mass yield. Third, greater carbon input belowground does not guarantee persistent soil-carbon storage because allocation, turnover, and rhizosphere priming determine retention. In controlled-environment agriculture, enrichment is most effective when CO2 supply is coordinated with light, climate, water, nutrients, crop load, energy use, and gas delivery. Future progress requires multi-factor, multi-year, genotype-resolved studies that link physiology with nutritional quality, soil processes, modelling, life-cycle impacts, and economics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/plants15193016","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T09:38:16Z","timestamp":1790847496000},"page":"3016","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["CO2 Fertilization in Plants from Physiological Mechanisms to Sustainable Deployment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-8548-3032","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yeding","family":"Xia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment\/State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Regional Eco-Process and Function Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lixiang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment\/State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Regional Eco-Process and Function Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Weiwei","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment\/State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Regional Eco-Process and Function Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tengfei","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Disaster Risk Reduction, Zhuhai Branch, Beijing Normal University at Zhuhai, Zhuhai 519087, China"},{"name":"Guangdong-Hong Kong Joint Laboratory for Carbon Neutrality, Jiangmen Laboratory of Carbon Science and Technology, Jiangmen 529199, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bingran","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment\/State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Regional Eco-Process and Function Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3040.2007.01641.x","article-title":"The response of photosynthesis and stomatal conductance to rising [CO2]: Mechanisms and environmental interactions","volume":"30","author":"Ainsworth","year":"2007","journal-title":"Plant Cell Environ."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8137.2006.01886.x","article-title":"Plant CO2 responses: An issue of definition, time and resource supply","volume":"172","year":"2006","journal-title":"New Phytol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2859","DOI":"10.1093\/jxb\/erp096","article-title":"Elevated CO2 effects on plant carbon, nitrogen, and water relations: Six important lessons from FACE","volume":"60","author":"Leakey","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. 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