{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T05:02:14Z","timestamp":1787029334748,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,29]],"date-time":"2021-01-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1611878400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Polymers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Membrane-based technology is an attractive option for the treatment of oily wastewater because of its high oil removal efficiency, small footprint and operational simplicity. However, filtration performance is highly restricted by membrane fouling, especially when treating oil\/water emulsion as a result of strong interaction between oil droplets and the hydrophobic property of the membrane. This study explores the fabrication of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)-based membrane via the vapour induced phase separation (VIPS) method while incorporating polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) as a hydrophilic additive to encounter membrane fouling issues and improve membrane filterability. The resulting membranes were characterized and tested for oil\/water emulsion filtration to evaluate their hydraulic, rejection and anti-fouling properties. Results show that the changes in membrane morphology and structure from typical macrovoids with finger-like substructure to cellular structure and larger membrane pore size were observed by the prolonged exposure time from 0 to 30 min through the VIPS method. The enhanced clean water permeability is attributed to the addition of PVP\u2013LiCl in the dope solution that enlarges the mean flow pore size from 0.210 \u00b1 0.1 to 7.709 \u00b1 3.5 \u00b5m. The best performing membrane was the VIPS membrane with an exposure time of 5 min (M-5), showing oil\/water emulsion permeability of 187 Lm\u22122 h\u22121 bar\u22121 and oil rejection of 91.3% as well as an elevation of 84% of clean water permeability compared to pristine PVDF developed using a typical non-solvent induced phase separation (NIPS) method. Despite the relatively high total fouling, M-5 was able to maintain its high permeability by water flushing as a simple operation for membrane fouling control. The performance was achieved thanks to combination of the large mean flow pore size and hydrophilic property from residual PVP in the membarne matrix. Overall, the results demonstrate the potential of the optimum VIPS method in the presence of PVP and LiCl additives for oil\/water emulsion treatment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/polym13030427","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,29]],"date-time":"2021-01-29T05:53:43Z","timestamp":1611899623000},"page":"427","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":30,"title":["Polyvinylidene Fluoride Membrane Via Vapour Induced Phase Separation for Oil\/Water Emulsion Filtration"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Normi Izati Mat","family":"Nawi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Chemical Engineering Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Seri Iskandar 32610, Perak, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nur Rifqah","family":"Sait","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chemical Engineering Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Seri Iskandar 32610, Perak, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7292-6046","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad Roil","family":"Bilad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chemical Engineering Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Seri Iskandar 32610, Perak, Malaysia"},{"name":"HICoE-Centre for Biofuel and Biochemical Research, Institute of Self-Sustainable Building, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Seri Iskandar 32610, Perak, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2281-502X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Norazanita","family":"Shamsuddin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Integrated Technologies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Jalan Tungku Link BE1410, Brunei"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juhana","family":"Jaafar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced Membrane Technology Research Center (AMTEC), School of Chemical and Energy Engineering (SCEE), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Johor 81310, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nik Abdul Hadi","family":"Nordin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chemical Engineering Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Seri Iskandar 32610, Perak, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thanitporn","family":"Narkkun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Nanotechnology Center (NANOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), 111 Thailand Science Park, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4724-0613","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kajornsak","family":"Faungnawakij","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Nanotechnology Center (NANOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), 111 Thailand Science Park, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dzeti Farhah","family":"Mohshim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Petroleum Engineering Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Seri Iskandar 32610, Perak, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2014.11.023","article-title":"Membrane technology enhancement in oil\u2013water separation. A review","volume":"357","author":"Padaki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kamyab, H., Chelliapan, S., Din, M.F.M., Rezania, S., Khademi, T., and Kumar, A. (2018). Palm oil mill effluent as an environmental pollutant. Palm Oil, 13.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.75811"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109603","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2019.109603","article-title":"Recent advances on palm oil mill effluent (POME) pretreatment and anaerobic reactor for sustainable biogas production","volume":"119","author":"Aziz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eti.2017.11.003","article-title":"Palm oil industry in South East Asia and the effluent treatment technology\u2014A review","volume":"9","author":"Iskandar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Technol. Innov."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S1913","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arabjc.2013.07.020","article-title":"A review of treating oily wastewater","volume":"10","author":"Yu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arab. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101350","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2020.101350","article-title":"Improved bubbling for membrane fouling control in filtration of palm oil mill effluent anaerobic digester sludge","volume":"36","author":"Annuar","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Water Process Eng."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hafyan, R.H., Bhullar, L.K., Mahadzir, S., Bilad, M.R., Nordin, N.A.H., Wirzal, M.D.H., Putra, Z.A., Rangaiah, G.P., and Abdullah, B. (2020). Integrated biorefinery of empty fruit bunch from palm oil industries to produce valuable biochemicals. Processes, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/pr8070868"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2020.101289","article-title":"A review of oily wastewater treatment using ultrafiltration membrane: A parametric study to enhance the membrane performance","volume":"36","author":"Ahmad","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Water Process Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2019.03.021","article-title":"Membrane-based separation for oily wastewater: A practical perspective","volume":"156","author":"Tanudjaja","year":"2019","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116007","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2019.116007","article-title":"Hydrophilic polymer-based membrane for oily wastewater treatment: A review","volume":"233","author":"Ismail","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2016.03.030","article-title":"Recent advances in cellulose and chitosan based membranes for water purification: A concise review","volume":"146","author":"Thakur","year":"2016","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4260","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.5b00495","article-title":"Recent progress on ferroelectric polymer-based nanocomposites for high energy density capacitors: Synthesis, dielectric properties, and future aspects","volume":"116","author":"Thakur","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2016.10.011","article-title":"Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane for oil rejection from oily wastewater: A performance review","volume":"14","author":"Otitoju","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Water Process Eng."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cocis.2018.02.002","article-title":"Antifouling membranes for oily wastewater treatment: Interplay between wetting and membrane fouling","volume":"36","author":"Huang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9304","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.9b00553","article-title":"Chemistry, structures, and advanced applications of nanocomposites from biorenewable resources","volume":"120","author":"Ates","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fahrina, A., Arahman, N., Mulyati, S., Aprilia, S., Mat Nawi, N.I., Aqsha, A., Bilad, M.R., Takagi, R., and Matsuyama, H. (2020). Development of polyvinylidene fluoride membrane by incorporating bio-based ginger extract as additive. Polymers, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym12092003"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2017.10.027","article-title":"Ultrahigh flux of polydopamine-coated PVDF membranes quenched in air via thermally induced phase separation for oil\/water emulsion separation","volume":"192","author":"Zuo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chiao, Y.-H., Chen, S.-T., Yap Ang, M.B.M., Patra, T., Castilla-Casadiego, D.A., Fan, R., Almodovar, J., Hung, W.-S., and Wickramasinghe, S.R. (2020). High-performance polyacrylic acid-grafted PVDF nanofiltration membrane with good antifouling property for the textile industry. Polymers, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym12112443"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1490","DOI":"10.1002\/polb.20804","article-title":"Leaching of PVP from polyacrylonitrile\/PVP blending membranes: A comparative study of asymmetric and dense membranes","volume":"44","author":"Wan","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Polym. Sci. Part B Polym. Phys."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117601","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2019.117601","article-title":"Investigating the potential of membranes formed by the vapor induced phase separation process","volume":"597","author":"Ismail","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/S0376-7388(98)00359-7","article-title":"Membrane formation by water vapor induced phase inversion","volume":"156","author":"Park","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2007.11.016","article-title":"A top surface liquid layer during membrane formation using vapor-induced phase separation (VIPS)\u2014Evidence and mechanism of formation","volume":"310","author":"Menut","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8996","DOI":"10.1021\/ma051560r","article-title":"Superhydrophobic surface from vapor-induced phase separation of copolymer micellar solution","volume":"38","author":"Zhao","year":"2005","journal-title":"Macromolecules"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mat Nawi, N.I., Chean, H.M., Shamsuddin, N., Bilad, M.R., Narkkun, T., Faungnawakij, K., and Khan, A.L. (2020). Development of hydrophilic PVDF membrane using vapour induced phase separation method for produced water treatment. Membranes, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes10060121"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2013.01.021","article-title":"Preparation of polysulfone membranes via vapor-induced phase separation and simulation of direct-contact membrane distillation by measuring hydrophobic layer thickness","volume":"316","author":"Peng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2005.11.029","article-title":"Morphology control of polysulfone hollow fiber membranes via water vapor induced phase separation","volume":"278","author":"Tsai","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"986","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2018.12.005","article-title":"Preparation and characterization of an antifouling poly(phenyl sulfone) ultrafiltration membrane by vapor-induced phase separation technique","volume":"212","author":"Dehban","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, T. (2015). Finger-Like Structure, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-40872-4_1959-1"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tan, X., and Rodrigue, D. (2019). A review on porous polymeric membrane preparation. Part I: Production techniques with polysulfone and poly (vinylidene fluoride). Polymers, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym11071160"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2010.05.046","article-title":"Effect of PEG additive and coagulation bath temperature on the morphology, permeability and thermal\/chemical stability of asymmetric CA membranes","volume":"262","author":"Saljoughi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/0376-7388(92)80135-7","article-title":"Microstructures in phase inversion membranes. Part 2. The role of a polymeric additive","volume":"73","author":"Boom","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marino, T., Russo, F., and Figoli, A. (2018). The formation of polyvinylidene fluoride membranes with tailored properties via vapour\/non-solvent induced phase separation. Membranes, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes8030071"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2017.10.068","article-title":"Preparation of high strength poly (vinylidene fluoride) porous membranes with cellular structure via vapor-induced phase separation","volume":"549","author":"Zhao","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2011.10.019","article-title":"Preparation, structural and functional characterization of modified porous PVDF membranes by \u03b3-irradiation","volume":"389","author":"Masuelli","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19952","DOI":"10.1039\/D0RA03148H","article-title":"Effect of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) on palladium catalysts for direct synthesis of hydrogen peroxide from hydrogen and oxygen","volume":"10","author":"Han","year":"2020","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4328","DOI":"10.1007\/s10853-016-9744-7","article-title":"Leaching of PVP from PVDF\/PVP blend membranes: Impacts on membrane structure and fouling in membrane bioreactors","volume":"51","author":"Mavukkandy","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2018.12.045","article-title":"Gradual PVP leaching from PVDF\/PVP blend membranes and its effects on membrane fouling in membrane bioreactors","volume":"213","author":"Marbelia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2018.06.102","article-title":"A review of membrane fouling and its control in algal-related membrane processes","volume":"264","author":"Liao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chollom, M.N., and Rathilal, S. (2018). Fouling and cleaning in osmotically driven membranes. Osmotically Driven Membrane Processes: Approach, Development and Current Status, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.73047"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2015.03.086","article-title":"Treatment of oily waste water by PVP grafted PVDF ultrafiltration membranes","volume":"273","author":"Huang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2235","DOI":"10.2166\/wst.2010.122","article-title":"Influence of membrane properties on physically reversible and irreversible fouling in membrane bioreactors","volume":"61","author":"Tsuyuhara","year":"2010","journal-title":"Water Sci. Technol."}],"container-title":["Polymers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/13\/3\/427\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:16:59Z","timestamp":1760159819000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/13\/3\/427"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,29]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2]]}},"alternative-id":["polym13030427"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/polym13030427","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4360"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4360","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,29]]}}}