{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T00:30:04Z","timestamp":1773016204623,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,12]],"date-time":"2021-12-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1639267200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003093","name":"Ministry of Higher Education","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["FRGS\/2\/2014\/TK04\/UNIMAP\/02\/3"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FRGS\/2\/2014\/TK04\/UNIMAP\/02\/3"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003093","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Polymers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Poly(ethylene-vinyl acetate) (PEVA) nanocomposite incorporating dual clay nanofiller (DCN) of surface modified montmorillonite (S-MMT) and bentonite (Bent) was studied for biomedical applications. In order to overcome agglomeration of the DCN, the S-MMT and Bent were subjected to a physical treatment prior to being mixed with the copolymer to form nanocomposite material. The S-MMT and Bent were physically treated to become S-MMT(P) and Bent(pH-s), respectively, that could be more readily dispersed in the copolymer matrix due to increments in their basal spacing and loosening of their tactoid structure. The biocompatibility of both nanofillers was assessed through a fibroblast cell cytotoxicity assay. The mechanical properties of the neat PEVA, PEVA nanocomposites, and PEVA-DCN nanocomposites were evaluated using a tensile test for determining the best S-MMT(P):Bent(pH-s) ratio. The results were supported by morphological studies by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Biostability evaluation of the samples was conducted by comparing the ambient tensile test data with the in vitro tensile test data (after being immersed in simulated body fluid at 37 \u00b0C for 3 months). The results were supported by surface degradation analysis. Our results indicate that the cytotoxicity level of both nanofillers reduced upon the physical treatment process, making them safe to be used in low concentration as dual nanofillers in the PEVA-DCN nanocomposite. The results of tensile testing, SEM, and TEM proved that the ratio of 4:1 (S-MMT(P):Bent(pH-s)) provides a greater enhancement in the mechanical properties of the PEVA matrix. The biostability assessment indicated that the PEVA-DCN nanocomposite can achieve much better retention in tensile strength after being subjected to the simulated physiological fluid for 3 months with less surface degradation effect. These findings signify the potential of the S-MMT(P)\/Bent(pH-s) as a reinforcing DCN, with simultaneous function as biostabilizing agent to the PEVA copolymer for implant application.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/polym13244345","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,13]],"date-time":"2021-12-13T01:29:33Z","timestamp":1639358973000},"page":"4345","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Biomedical PEVA Nanocomposite with Dual Clay Nanofiller: Cytotoxicity, Mechanical Properties, and Biostability"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Tuty Fareyhynn","family":"Mohammed Fitri","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Chemical Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Arau 02600, Malaysia"},{"name":"Biomedical and Nanotechnology Research Group, Center of Excellence Geopolymer and Green Technology (CEGeoGtech), Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Arau 02600, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9090-936X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Azlin Fazlina","family":"Osman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Chemical Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Arau 02600, Malaysia"},{"name":"Biomedical and Nanotechnology Research Group, Center of Excellence Geopolymer and Green Technology (CEGeoGtech), Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Arau 02600, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4925-7192","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eid M.","family":"Alosime","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), P.O. Box 6086, Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rahimah","family":"Othman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Chemical Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Arau 02600, Malaysia"},{"name":"Biomedical and Nanotechnology Research Group, Center of Excellence Geopolymer and Green Technology (CEGeoGtech), Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Arau 02600, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fatimah","family":"Hashim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"BioSES Research Interest Group, Faculty of Science and Marine Environment, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus 21030, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mohd Aidil Adhha","family":"Abdullah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Fundamental Science, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Terengganu 21030, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000779","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202000779","article-title":"Self-Powered Implantable Medical Devices: Photovoltaic Energy Harvesting Review","volume":"9","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.5b00429","article-title":"Polymeric Biomaterials for Medical Implants and Devices","volume":"2","author":"Teo","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4545","DOI":"10.1039\/C8CS00161H","article-title":"Polyester Elastomers for Soft Tissue Engineering","volume":"47","author":"Ye","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1284","DOI":"10.1039\/D0MA00673D","article-title":"Elaboration and Mechanical Properties of Elastomeric Fibrous Scaffolds Based on Crosslinked Poly(Glycerol Sebacate) and Cyclodextrin for Soft Tissue Engineering","volume":"2","author":"Flaig","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Adv."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reddy, M.S.B., Ponnamma, D., Choudhary, R., and Sadasivuni, K.K. (2021). A Comparative Review of Natural and Synthetic Biopolymer Composite Scaffolds. Polymers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym13071105"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1908101","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201908101","article-title":"Copolymer\/Clay Nanocomposites for Biomedical Applications","volume":"30","author":"Murugesan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maeda, T., Kitagawa, M., Hotta, A., and Koizumi, S. (2019). Thermo-Responsive Nanocomposite Hydrogels Based on PEG-b-PLGA Diblock Copolymer and Laponite. Polymers, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym11020250"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"83","article-title":"Multifunctional biodegradable polymer\/clay nanocomposites with antibacterial properties in drug delivery systems","volume":"22","author":"Szaraniec","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Bioeng. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8308","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2013.05.021","article-title":"In vitro biostability of poly(dimethyl siloxane\/hexamethylene oxide)-based polyurethane\/layered silicate nanocomposites","volume":"9","author":"Andriani","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Willerth, S. (2017). Engineering Neural Tissue from Stem Cells, Elsevier Inc.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-811385-1.00005-4"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clay.2008.06.016","article-title":"Synthesis and Antimicrobial Activities of Polymer\/Montmorillonite-Chlorhexidine Acetate Nanocomposite Films","volume":"42","author":"Meng","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Clay Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Thomas, S., and Maria, H.J. (2017). Micro- and Nano-Fillers Used in the Rubber Industry. Progress in Rubber Nanocomposites, Elsevier Ltd."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, K., and Deng, Q. (2019). The Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Microinhomogeneous Materials. Polymers, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym11061055"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1007\/12_2013_228","article-title":"Polyolefins\/Layered Silicate Nanocomposites Prepared by In Situ Polymerization","volume":"Volume 258","author":"Kaminsky","year":"2013","journal-title":"Advances in Polymer Science (Polyolefins: 50 Years after Ziegler and Natta II- Polyolefins by Metallocenes and Other Single-Site Catalysts)"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2017.08.004","article-title":"Applications of Ethylene Vinyl Acetate Copolymers (EVA) in Drug Delivery Systems","volume":"262","author":"Schneider","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmed, W., Phoenix, D.A., Jackson, M.J., and Charalambous, C.P. (2020). Importance of Biomaterials in Biomedical Engineering. Advances in Medical and Surgical Engineering, Elsevier Inc.. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-819712-7.00001-2"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Inamuddin Asiri, A.M., and Mohammad, A. (2018). Nanocomposites in Total Hip Joint Replacements. Applications of Nanocomposite Materials in Orthopedics, Woodhead Publishing."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Sharma, C.P. (2019). Failure Mechanisms of Medical Implants and Their Effects on Outcomes. Biointegration of Medical Implant Materials, Elsevier Ltd."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1002\/vnl.21708","article-title":"Ethylene Vinyl Acetate Nanocomposites with Hybrid Silicate Nanofillers of Destabilized Natural and Commercial Bentonites and Organomontmorillonites","volume":"25","author":"Fauzi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Vinyl Addit. Technol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clay.2004.01.001","article-title":"Colloidal behavior of aqueous montmorillonite suspensions: The specific role of pH in the presence of indifferent electrolytes","volume":"27","author":"Szekeres","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl. Clay Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clay.2007.01.011","article-title":"Effect of pH and electrolyte on the rheology of aqueous Wyoming bentonite-dispersions","volume":"38","author":"Kelessidis","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Clay Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.14419\/ijet.v7i2.23.11934","article-title":"Effects of Ultrasonication Time on Thermal Stability and Swelling Behaviour of the Commercial Organo-Montmorillonite (O-MMT)","volume":"7","author":"Hamid","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sivasankaran, S. (2019). Polymer Nanocomposites with Different Types of Nanofiller. Nanocomposites\u2014Recent Evolutions, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.73364"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.3390\/nano3030550","article-title":"Influence of Nanoclay Dispersion Methods on the Mechanical Behavior of E-Glass\/Epoxy Nanocomposites","volume":"3","author":"Agubra","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nanomaterials"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtice.2017.12.002","article-title":"Hybrid Nanocomposite Film with Enhanced Moisture Barrier Properties","volume":"83","author":"Chiu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31485","DOI":"10.1039\/C4RA15116J","article-title":"In vitro biostability and biocompatibility of ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA) nanocomposites for biomedical applications","volume":"40","author":"Osman","year":"2015","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2008.09.015","article-title":"The Effect of Organo Clay and Adsorbed FeO3 Nanoparticles on Cells Cultured on Ethylene Vinyl Acetate Substrates and Fibers","volume":"30","author":"Wen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pe\u00f1a-Mor\u00e1n, O.A., Villarreal, M.L., \u00c1lvarez-Berber, L., Meneses-Acosta, A., and Rodr\u00edguez-L\u00f3pez, V. (2016). Cytotoxicity, Post-Treatment Recovery, and Selectivity Analysis of Naturally Occurring Podophyllotoxins from Bursera Fagaroides Var. Fagaroides on Breast Cancer Cell Lines. Molecules, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules21081013"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12906-018-2153-5","article-title":"In Vitro Investigation of Cytotoxic and Antioxidative Activities of Ardisia Crispa against Breast Cancer Cell Lines, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231","volume":"18","author":"Nordin","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMC Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Wang, A., and Wang, W. (2019). 7-Smectite Nanomaterials: Preparation, Properties, and Functional Applications. Nanomaterials from Clay Minerals: A New Approach to Green Functional Materials, Elsevier Inc."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zoveidavianpoor, M. (2018). Montmorillonite: An Introduction to Properties and Utilization. Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.71295"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.2478\/achi-2018-0017","article-title":"Total Mineralization of Malachite Green Dye by Advanced Oxidation Processes","volume":"26","author":"Mirila","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Chem. Iasi"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16413","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-15642-9","article-title":"Synthesis and Implication of Novel Poly(Acrylic Acid)\/Nanosorbent Embedded Hydrogel Composite for Lead Ion Removal","volume":"7","author":"Bhatia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121833","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.121833","article-title":"Preparation of Organic Montmorillonite Promoter for Improving the Adhesion between Bitumen and Acidic Aggregate","volume":"274","author":"Tang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.saa.2005.07.018","article-title":"Determination of Structural Modification in Acid Activated Montmorillonite Clay by FT-IR Spectroscopy","volume":"64","author":"Tyagi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"492","article-title":"Modification of Bentonite with Different Surfactants and Substitute as a Mordant in Wool Natural Dyeing","volume":"45","author":"Barani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chiang Mai J. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.2478\/jvetres-2018-0067","article-title":"Cell Viability in Normal Fibroblasts and Liver Cancer Cells after Treatment with Iron (III), Nickel (II), and Their Mixture","volume":"62","author":"Siwicki","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2017.00005","article-title":"In Vitro Antiproliferative and Apoptosis Inducing Effect of Allium Atroviolaceum Bulb Extract on Breast, Cervical, and Liver Cancer Cells","volume":"8","author":"Khazaei","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.17576\/jsm-2019-4801-14","article-title":"Cytotoxicity, Proliferation and Migration Rate Assessments of Human Dermal Fibroblast Adult Cells Using Zingiber Zerumbet Extract","volume":"48","author":"Latif","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sains Malaysiana"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111895","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2021.111895","article-title":"Exploring the Anticancer Effects of Standardized Extracts of Poplar-Type Propolis: In Vitro Cytotoxicity toward Cancer and Normal Cell Lines","volume":"141","author":"Campoccia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, A., Kukreti, R., Saso, L., and Kukreti, S. (2019). Oxidative Stress: A Key Modulator in Neurodegenerative Diseases. Molecules, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules24081583"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1002\/jat.1564","article-title":"Cytotoxic Effects Induced by Unmodified and Organically Modified Nanoclays in the Human Hepatic HepG2 Cell Line","volume":"31","author":"Lordan","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Appl. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1050","DOI":"10.3762\/bjnano.9.98","article-title":"Review on Nanoparticles and Nanostructured Materials: History, Sources, Toxicity and Regulations","volume":"9","author":"Jeevanandam","year":"2018","journal-title":"Beilstein J. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.1007\/s11665-013-0795-5","article-title":"Microstructure and Softening of Laser-Welded 960 MPa Grade High Strength Steel Joints","volume":"23","author":"Meng","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Mater. Eng. Perform."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22045","DOI":"10.1039\/C7RA02439H","article-title":"Efficient Interfacial Interaction for Improving Mechanical Properties of Polydimethylsiloxane Nanocomposites Filled with Low Content of Graphene Oxide Nanoribbons","volume":"7","author":"Huang","year":"2017","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1590\/1980-5373-mr-2018-0197","article-title":"Effect of Martensitic Transformation on Elastic Modulus Anisotropy of Ti-6Al-4V Alloy","volume":"21","author":"Feng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4033","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms10094033","article-title":"Degradability of Polymers for Implantable Biomedical Devices","volume":"10","author":"Lyu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stewart, S.A., Dom\u00ednguez-Robles, J., Donnelly, R.F., and Larra\u00f1eta, E. (2018). Implantable Polymeric Drug Delivery Devices: Classification, Manufacture, Materials, and Clinical Applications. Polymers, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym10121379"}],"container-title":["Polymers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/13\/24\/4345\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:45:54Z","timestamp":1760168754000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/13\/24\/4345"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,12]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"24","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12]]}},"alternative-id":["polym13244345"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/polym13244345","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4360"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4360","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,12]]}}}