{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,4]],"date-time":"2026-08-04T00:18:49Z","timestamp":1785802729629,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,13]],"date-time":"2022-04-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1649808000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Polymers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Traditional medical soft matrix used in a surgical treatment or in wound management was not good enough in both the structural support and interconnectivity to be applied in tissue engineering as a scaffold. Avian skeleton and feather rachises might be good reference objects to mimic in designing a scaffold material with good structural support and high interconnectivity because of its structural foam-wall microarchitectures and structural pneumaticity. In this study, a biomimetic airstream pore-foaming process was built up and the corresponding new medical soft matrix derived from polyvinyl alcohol matrix (PVAM) with air cavities inspired by avian skeleton and feather rachises was prepared. Furthermore, the resulting medical soft matrix and bovine Achilles tendon type I collagen could be employed to prepare a new collagen-containing composite matrix. Characterization, thermal stability and cell morphology of the bioinspired PVA matrix and the corresponding collagen-modified PVA composite matrix with open-cell foam-wall microarchitectures were studied for evaluation of potential tissue engineering applications. TGA, DTG, DSC, SEM and FTIR results of new bioinspired PVA matrix were employed to build up the effective system identification approach for biomimetic structure, stability, purity, and safety of target soft matrix. The bioinspired PVA matrix and the corresponding collagen-modified PVA composite matrix would be conductive to human hepatoblastoma HepG2 cell proliferation, migration, and expression which might serve as a promising liver cell culture carrier to be used in the biological artificial liver reactor.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14081585","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,13]],"date-time":"2022-04-13T23:07:16Z","timestamp":1649891236000},"page":"1585","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Design and Characterization of a Bioinspired Polyvinyl Alcohol Matrix with Structural Foam-Wall Microarchitectures for Potential Tissue Engineering Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7120-9328","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ching-Cheng","family":"Huang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Ming-Chuan University, Guishan District, Taoyuan 320-33, Taiwan"},{"name":"PARSD Biomedical Material Research Center, Xitun District, Taichung 407-49, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1746-160X-4-22","article-title":"In vitro evaluation of various bioabsorbable and nonresorbable barrier membranes for guided tissue regeneration","volume":"4","author":"Kasaj","year":"2008","journal-title":"Head Face Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2020.1751585","article-title":"A review on recent advances and applications of fish collagen","volume":"61","author":"Subhan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4246","DOI":"10.1039\/C8RA08187E","article-title":"Development of 3D PVA scaffolds for cardiac tissue engineering and cell screening applications","volume":"9","author":"Dattola","year":"2019","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm.a.10583","article-title":"Polyvinylalcohol three-dimensional matrices for improved long-term dynamic culture of hepatocytes","volume":"66","author":"Saavedra","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1451","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm.b.32694","article-title":"A review of polyvinyl alcohol and its uses in cartilage and orthopedic applications","volume":"100","author":"Baker","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2018.07.003","article-title":"Injectable degradable PVA microgels prepared by microfluidic technology for controlled osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells","volume":"77","author":"Hou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21158","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-00369-5","article-title":"Immediate application of negative pressure wound therapy following lower extremity fap reconstruction in sixteen patients","volume":"11","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11392","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.6b14283","article-title":"Chitosan-intercalated montmorillonite\/poly(vinyl alcohol) nanofibers as a platform to guide neuronlike differentiation of human dental pulp stem cells","volume":"9","author":"Hamidabadi","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-3659(91)90007-Z","article-title":"Reinforced uncrosslinked poly (vinyl alcohol) gels produced by cyclic freezing-thawing processes: A short review","volume":"16","author":"Peppas","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-3659(85)90016-1","article-title":"The effect of \u03b1-amylases upon the release of trifluralin encapsulated in starch","volume":"1","author":"Trimnell","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41270","DOI":"10.1002\/app.41270","article-title":"A Novel Method of Making PVF Porous Foam Without Using the Pore Forming Agent","volume":"132","author":"Chang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"BeMiller, J.N., and Whistler, R.L. (2009). Starch: Chemistry and Technology, Academic Press. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1094\/CC-83-0259","article-title":"Measurement of Wheat Starch Granule Size Distribution Using Image Analysis and Laser Diffraction Technology","volume":"83","author":"Wilson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cereal Chem."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109652","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2021.109652","article-title":"Physicochemical properties and biocompatibility of the bi-layer polyvinyl alcohol-based hydrogel for osteochondral tissue engineering","volume":"204","author":"Lan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, Z., Kong, B., Liu, R., Sun, W., and Mi, S. (2018). Engineering of corneal tissue through an aligned PVA\/collagen composite nanofibrous electrospun scaffold. Nanomaterials, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano8020124"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barbon, S., Contran, M., Stocco, E., Todros, S., Macchi, V., Caro, R.D., and Porzionato, A. (2021). Enhanced Biomechanical Properties of Polyvinyl Alcohol-Based Hybrid Scaffolds for Cartilage Tissue Engineering. Processes, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pr9050730"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1080\/00914037.2018.1474358","article-title":"Development of collagen\/PVA composites patches for osteochondral defects using a green processing of ionic liquid","volume":"68","author":"Iqbal","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Polym. Mater."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1080\/00914037.2012.710862","article-title":"Porous three-dimensional PVA\/gelatin sponge for skin tissue engineering","volume":"62","author":"Choi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Polym. Mater. Polym. Biomater."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jare.2017.01.005","article-title":"A review on polymeric hydrogel membranes for wound dressing applications: PVA-based hydrogel dressings","volume":"8","author":"Kamoun","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Adv. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.progpolymsci.2011.05.003","article-title":"Current research on the blends of natural and synthetic polymers as new biomaterials: Review","volume":"36","author":"Sionkowska","year":"2011","journal-title":"Prog. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Min, Q., Tian, D., Zhang, Y., Wang, C., Wan, Y., and Wu, J. (2022). Strong and Elastic Chitosan\/Silk Fibroin Hydrogels Incorporated with Growth-Factor-Loaded Microspheres for Cartilage Tissue Engineering. Biomimetics, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomimetics7020041"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1667","DOI":"10.1080\/09205063.2018.1500084","article-title":"Biomimetic approaches for tissue engineering","volume":"29","author":"Reddy","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Biomater. Sci. Polym. Ed."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4246","DOI":"10.1039\/D0BM01852J","article-title":"Biomimetic hydrogels designed for cartilage tissue engineering","volume":"9","author":"Ngadimin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1484","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.nanolett.0c04753","article-title":"A Biomimetic Drug Delivery System by Integrating Grapefruit Extracellular Vesicles and Doxorubicin-Loaded Heparin-Based Nanoparticles for Glioma Therapy","volume":"21","author":"Niu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1038\/s41427-022-00365-9","article-title":"Chameleon-inspired multifunctional plasmonic nanoplatforms for biosensing applications","volume":"14","author":"Ziai","year":"2022","journal-title":"NPG Asia Mater"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35620","DOI":"10.1039\/C4RA03278K","article-title":"Preparation and absorption behavior to organic pollutants of macroporous hydrophobic polyvinyl alcohol\u2013formaldehyde sponges","volume":"4","author":"Pan","year":"2014","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2020.00875","article-title":"Basic Principles of Emulsion Templating and Its Use as an Emerging Manufacturing Method of Tissue Engineering Scaffolds","volume":"8","author":"Aldemir","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/657542","article-title":"Biological effect of gas plasma treatment on CO2 gas foaming\/salt leaching fabricated porous polycaprolactone scaffolds in bone tissue engineering","volume":"3","author":"Bak","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Nanomater."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3513","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.0c00191","article-title":"Bioengineering vascular networks to study angiogenesis and vascularization of physiologically relevant tissue models in Vitro","volume":"6","author":"Dikici","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbe.2017.08.007","article-title":"The effect of zinc oxide doping on mechanical and biological properties of 3D printed calcium sulfate based scaffolds","volume":"37","author":"Dikici","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biocybern. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2053","DOI":"10.1002\/app.21668","article-title":"Preparation of ultra-low-density microcellular materials","volume":"96","author":"Richez","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.teb.2012.0437","article-title":"Three-dimensional scaffolds for tissue engineering applications: Role of porosity and pore size","volume":"19","author":"Loh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Tissue Eng. Part B Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.1016\/j.burns.2005.01.015","article-title":"The relative thermal stability of tissue macromolecules and cellular structure in burn injury","volume":"31","author":"Despa","year":"2005","journal-title":"Burns"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rynkowska, E., Fatyeyeva, K., Marais, S., Kujawa, J., and Kujawski, W. (2019). Chemically and Thermally Crosslinked PVA-Based Membranes: Effect on Swelling and Transport Behavior. Polymers, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym11111799"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1094\/CCHEM.1997.74.4.431","article-title":"Properties of Some Starch Blends","volume":"74","author":"Obanni","year":"1997","journal-title":"Cereal Chem."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"480","article-title":"Influence of annealing on the pasting properties of starches from varying botanical sources","volume":"72","author":"Jacobs","year":"1995","journal-title":"Cereal Chem."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2156","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.3709","article-title":"DSC enthalpic transitions during starch gelatinization in excess water, dilute sodium chloride, and dilute sucrose solutions","volume":"89","author":"Ratnayake","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2217","DOI":"10.1007\/s10973-012-2592-z","article-title":"Thermal, rheological, and structural behaviors of natural and modified cassava starch granules, with sodium hypochlorite solutions","volume":"111","author":"Beninca","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Anal. Calorim."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1007\/s10965-006-0125-9","article-title":"Compatibility studies of polypropylene (PP)-sago starch (SS) blends using DMTA","volume":"7","author":"Hamdan","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Polym. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1007\/s10336-013-1038-0","article-title":"Feather structure, biomechanics and biomimetics: The incredible lightness of being","volume":"155","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Ornithol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010993219791","article-title":"The mechanical performance of medullary foam from feathers","volume":"20","author":"Bonser","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.3724\/SP.J.1105.2006.00387","article-title":"Synthesis and spectra of compleses involving polyvinyl alcohol fiber ligands","volume":"3","author":"Tao","year":"2006","journal-title":"Acta Polym. Sin."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3912","DOI":"10.1021\/jf011652p","article-title":"Characterization of irradiated starches by using FT-Raman and FTIR spectroscopy","volume":"50","author":"Kizil","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2018.03.138","article-title":"Influence of storage under unfavourable conditions on the caking properties and fungal contamination of potato starch and wheat flour","volume":"260","author":"Dankar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"012003","article-title":"Physical and chemical properties of corn, cassava, and potato starchs","volume":"160","author":"Abdullah","year":"2018","journal-title":"Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5363","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.1c00875","article-title":"Promising Graphene-Based Nanomaterials and Their Biomedical Applications and Potential Risks: A Comprehensive Review","volume":"7","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2857","DOI":"10.1007\/s11033-018-4296-3","article-title":"Biopolymers: Applications in wound healing and skin tissue Engineering","volume":"45","author":"Sahana","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfb.2015.10.012","article-title":"Fabrication of macroporous cryogels as potential hepatocyte carriers for bioartificial liver support","volume":"136","author":"Jain","year":"2015","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1098\/rsfs.2011.0033","article-title":"The effect of nanofibre surface amine density and conjugate structure on the adhesion and proliferation of human haematopoietic progenitor cells","volume":"1","author":"Jiang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Interface Focus"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111559","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfb.2021.111559","article-title":"Unraveling the interaction mechanism between collagen and alcohols with different chain lengths and hydroxyl positions","volume":"199","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"81","article-title":"The rheological behavior of collagen dispersion\/poly(vinyl alcohol) blends","volume":"19","author":"Lai","year":"2007","journal-title":"Korea-Aust. Rheol. J."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1938","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2020.09.033","article-title":"In vitro evaluation of poly (vinyl alcohol)\/collagen blended hydrogels for regulating human periodontal ligament fibroblasts and gingival fibroblasts","volume":"163","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"1","article-title":"Biomimetic polyvinyl alcohol\/type II collagen hydrogels for cartilage tissue engineering. Journal of Biomaterials Science","volume":"31","author":"Lan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Polym. Ed."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"17","article-title":"Freeze-thawed hybridized preparation with biomimetic self-assembly for a polyvinyl alcohol\/collagen hydrogel created for meniscus tissue engineering","volume":"21","author":"Puttawibul","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Biomim. Biomater. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymer.2009.12.046","article-title":"Polyvinyl alcohol\u2013collagen\u2013hydroxyapatite biocomposite nanofibrous scaffold: Mimicking the key features of natural bone at the nanoscale level","volume":"51","author":"Asran","year":"2010","journal-title":"Polymer"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.reth.2019.08.006","article-title":"Intact extracellular matrix component promotes maintenance of liver-specific functions and larger aggregates formation of primary rat hepatocytes","volume":"11","author":"Bual","year":"2019","journal-title":"Regen Ther."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.15283\/ijsc.2015.8.1.36","article-title":"Cell sources, liver support systems and liver tissue engineering: Alternatives to liver transplantation","volume":"8","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Stem Cells"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1007\/s12257-012-0047-9","article-title":"Liver tissue engineering: Recent advances in the development of a bio-artificial liver","volume":"17","author":"Lee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Bioproc. E"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fbio.2015.12.005","article-title":"Comparison of collagen and gelatin extracted from the skins of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus)","volume":"13","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Biosci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tice.2013.12.004","article-title":"A visco-hyperelastic constitutive approach for modeling polyvinyl alcohol sponge","volume":"46","author":"Karimi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Tissue Cell"},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"1","article-title":"Synthesis and characterization of a novel poly(vinyl alcohol) 3D platform for the evaluation of hepatocytes response to drug administration","volume":"2","author":"Stampella","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15467","DOI":"10.1039\/D1RA02402G","article-title":"Effect of surface energy and roughness on cell adhesion and growth\u2013facile surface modification for enhanced cell culture","volume":"11","author":"Majhy","year":"2021","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.3390\/jfb6010016","article-title":"Poly(vinyl alcohol)\/gelatin hydrogels cultured with HepG2 Cells as a 3D model of hepatocellular carcinoma: A morphological study","volume":"6","author":"Moscato","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Funct. Biomater."}],"container-title":["Polymers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/14\/8\/1585\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:53:30Z","timestamp":1760136810000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/14\/8\/1585"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,13]]},"references-count":63,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4]]}},"alternative-id":["polym14081585"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/polym14081585","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4360"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4360","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,13]]}}}