{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T01:31:51Z","timestamp":1760232711270,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,25]],"date-time":"2022-11-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1669334400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005273","name":"Yunnan Provincial Natural Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["202101AT070038"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202101AT070038"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005273","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Polymers"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bio-based biodegradable foams were formulated from a crosslinkable network structure combining starch, furfuryl alcohol, glyoxal, and condensed tannin in the presence of p-toluenesulfonic acid (pTSA) and azodicarbonamide (AC) as a foaming agent. More importantly, the reinforcement of gelatinized starch\u2013furanic foam using tannin, originating from forestry, resulted in an excellent compressive strength and lower pulverization ratio. Moreover, the addition of tannin guaranteed a low thermal conductivity and moderate flame retardancy. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy approved the successful polycondensation of these condensing agents under the employed acidic conditions. Moreover, the catalytic effect of pTSA on the foaming agent induced liberation of gases, which are necessary for foam formation during crosslinking. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed foam formation comprising closed cells with uniform cell distribution and appropriate apparent density. Meanwhile, the novel foam exhibited biodegradation under the action of Penicillium sp., as identified by the damage of cell walls of this foam over a period of 30 days.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14235140","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,28]],"date-time":"2022-11-28T06:04:36Z","timestamp":1669615476000},"page":"5140","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Facile Synthesis of Formaldehyde-Free Bio-Based Thermoset Resins for Fabrication of Highly Efficient Foams"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8904-9876","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xuehui","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Yunnan Provincial Key Laboratory of Wood Adhesives and Glued Products, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming 650224, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bowen","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yunnan Provincial Key Laboratory of Wood Adhesives and Glued Products, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming 650224, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lulu","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yunnan Provincial Key Laboratory of Wood Adhesives and Glued Products, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming 650224, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2075-4216","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hisham","family":"Essawy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Polymers and Pigments, National Research Centre, Dokki, Cairo 12622, Egypt"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhiyan","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-oiwake-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9471-8002","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Can","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yunnan Provincial Key Laboratory of Wood Adhesives and Glued Products, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming 650224, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaojian","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yunnan Provincial Key Laboratory of Wood Adhesives and Glued Products, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming 650224, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jun","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yunnan Provincial Key Laboratory of Wood Adhesives and Glued Products, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming 650224, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110038","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2020.110038","article-title":"Comparative analysis of building insulation material properties and performance","volume":"131","author":"Kumar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1352","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2017.02.034","article-title":"review on insulation materials for energy conservation in buildings","volume":"73","author":"Aditya","year":"2017","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2020.122239","article-title":"Effect of surface treatment on mechanical, physical and morphological properties of oil palm\/bagasse fiber reinforced phenolic hybrid composites for wall thermal insulation application","volume":"276","author":"Ramlee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfa.2014.12.037","article-title":"Nanoporous cellulose nanocomposite foams as high insulated food packaging materials","volume":"468","author":"Ahmadzadeh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132009","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matlet.2022.132009","article-title":"Hydrophobic and fire safe polyurethane foam coated with chitosan and nano-montmorillonite via layer-by-layer assembly for emergency absorption of oil spill","volume":"316","author":"Zhu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012015","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/1192\/1\/012015","article-title":"Microwave-assisted synthesis of polylactic acid-diol for polyurethane as biodegradable packaging material","volume":"1192","author":"Razali","year":"2021","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110419","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2022.110419","article-title":"Tailoring nano-fibrillated polystyrene composite with enhanced fire retarding properties for foam applications","volume":"214","author":"Amirabadi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbenv.2021.01.008","article-title":"Fabrication of fire-retardant building materials via a hyper-crosslinking chemical conversion process from waste polystyrenes","volume":"3","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Energy Built Environ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121029","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.121029","article-title":"Experimental research on an innovative sawdust biomass-based insulation material for buildings","volume":"260","author":"Zou","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1081","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2016.11.087","article-title":"Impact of external insulation and internal thermal density upon energy consumption of buildings in a temperate climate with four distinct seasons","volume":"75","author":"Lee","year":"2017","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2095","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2010.03.029","article-title":"Energy efficiency and carbon trading potential in Malaysia","volume":"14","author":"Oh","year":"2010","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2021.126151","article-title":"Analyzing life-cycle water footprint for advanced bio-liquid fuel: Crop residues and non-grain biofuels in China","volume":"293","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.3844\/ajbbsp.2012.44.53","article-title":"Physical properties of corn residues","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Biochem. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"7193","article-title":"Effect of maleic anhydride and titanate coupling agent as additives on the properties of poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate)\/thermoplastic starch films","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Polym. Bull."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102958","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijadhadh.2021.102958","article-title":"Preparation of a starch-based adhesive cross-linked with furfural, furfuryl alcohol and epoxy resin","volume":"110","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2014.08.063","article-title":"Preparation and properties of a starch-based wood adhesive with high bonding strength and water resistance","volume":"115","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2016.12.028","article-title":"Effects of heat pretreatment of starch on graft copolymerization reaction and performance of resulting starch-based wood adhesive","volume":"96","author":"Zheng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"778","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cherd.2013.10.027","article-title":"Extrusion-cooking of starch protective loose-fill foams","volume":"92","author":"Mitrus","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Res. Des."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/S0926-6690(00)00095-9","article-title":"In situ laminating process for baked starch-based foams","volume":"14","author":"Glenn","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.progpolymsci.2009.07.001","article-title":"Thermal processing of starch-based polymers","volume":"34","author":"Liu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Prog. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2016.02.035","article-title":"A new approach in compatibilization of the poly(lactic acid)\/thermoplastic starch (PLA\/TPS) blends","volume":"144","author":"Akrami","year":"2016","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2022.115246","article-title":"Preparation and characterization of a bio-based rigid plastic based on gelatinized starch cross-linked with furfural and formaldehyde","volume":"186","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2011.07.001","article-title":"Mechanical and physical properties of expanded starch, reinforced by natural fibres","volume":"37","author":"Bergeret","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2018.06.017","article-title":"Thermoplastic starch foamed composites reinforced with cellulose nanofibers: Thermal and mechanical properties","volume":"197","author":"Ghanbari","year":"2018","journal-title":"Carbohydr Polym."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.33795\/jtkl.v3i1.100","article-title":"Karakterisasi biodegradable foam dari pati sagu termodifikasi dengan kitosan sebagai aditif","volume":"3","author":"Hendrawati","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Tek. Kim. Dan Lingkunga"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, X., Teng, Z., and Huang, R. (2020). Biodegradable starch\/chitosan foam via microwave assisted preparation: Morphology and performance properties. Polymers, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym12112612"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, Y.X., Wang, Y.F., Xu, P.P., and Chang, J.M. (2018). Preparation and Characterization of Phenolic Foam Modified with Bio-Oil. Materials, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma11112228"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"1014","article-title":"Preparation and Characterization of Lignin-Phenolic Foam","volume":"236\u2013238","author":"Cao","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17732","DOI":"10.1039\/c3ra43095b","article-title":"Natural tannin\u2013furanic thermosetting moulding plastics","volume":"3","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2013.04.043","article-title":"Tannin\/furanic foams without blowing agents and formaldehyde","volume":"49","author":"Basso","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymdegradstab.2011.01.014","article-title":"Flammability assessment of tannin-based cellular materials","volume":"96","author":"Celzard","year":"2011","journal-title":"Polym. Degrad. Stab."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2014.12.018","article-title":"Pine (P. pinaster) and quebracho (S. lorentzii) tannin-based foams as green acoustic absorbers","volume":"67","author":"Lacoste","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.32604\/jrm.2019.06511","article-title":"Tannin-based biofoams\u2014A review","volume":"7","author":"Pizzi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Renew. Mater."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"6082","article-title":"Development and characterization of a Bayberry tannin-based adhesive for particleboard","volume":"12","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"BioResources"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijadhadh.2019.04.012","article-title":"Tannin-based adhesive cross-linked by furfuryl alcohol-glyoxal and epoxy resins","volume":"94","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.4067\/S0718-221X2022000100433","article-title":"Formaldehyde free tannin-based adhesive with epoxy as hardener for plywood","volume":"24","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Maderas Cienc. Tecnol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2015.01.046","article-title":"Cutting and grinding wheels for angle grinders with a bioresin matrix","volume":"67","author":"Lagel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.4067\/S0718-221X2021000100448","article-title":"Preparation and performance of tannin-glyoxal-urea resin-bonded grinding wheel loaded with SiO2 reinforcing particles","volume":"23","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Maderas Cienc. Tecnol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.32604\/jrm.2020.012374","article-title":"Preparation of an Abrasive Grinding Wheel Based on Tannin Resin Cross-Linked by Furfuryl Alcohol, Urea and Glyoxal","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Renew. Mater."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1515\/npprj-2018-0042","article-title":"Lignin-based adhesive crosslinked by furfuryl alcohol\u2013glyoxal and epoxy resins","volume":"34","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nord. Pulp Pap. Res. J."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3009","DOI":"10.32604\/jrm.2022.019848","article-title":"Formaldehyde Free Renewable Thermosetting Foam Based on Biomass Tannin with a Lignin Additive","volume":"10","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Renew. Mater."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2013.05.029","article-title":"Optimization of Tannin Rigid Foam as Adsorbents in Wastewater Treatment","volume":"49","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8623","DOI":"10.1021\/acssuschemeng.1c02273","article-title":"Biobased phosphorus siloxane-containing polyurethane foam with flame-retardant and smoke-suppressant performances","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1002\/vnl.21757","article-title":"Foaming and Physical Properties, Flame Retardancy, and Combustibility of Polyethylene Octene Foams Modified by Natural Rubber and Expandable Graphite","volume":"26","author":"Sawangpet","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Vinyl Addit. Technol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2013.04.089","article-title":"The effect of partial gelatinization of corn starch on its retrogradation","volume":"97","author":"Fu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2008.11.001","article-title":"Lignocellulosic residues: Biodegradation and bioconversion by fungi","volume":"27","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Adv."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125711","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.125711","article-title":"Flame-retardant and thermally-insulating tannin and soybean protein isolate (SPI) based foams for potential applications in building materials","volume":"315","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2021.113264","article-title":"Preparation and characterization of novel cellular\/nonporous foam structures derived from tannin furanic resin","volume":"162","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ind. Crops. Prod."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1919","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpj.2022.04.012","article-title":"Relationship between fitness and heterogeneity in exponentially growing microbial populations","volume":"121","author":"Muntoni","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biophys. J."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1656(00)00406-5","article-title":"Degradation of natural and synthetic polyesters under anaerobic conditions","volume":"86","author":"Deckwer","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Biotechnol."}],"container-title":["Polymers"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/14\/23\/5140\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:27:05Z","timestamp":1760146025000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4360\/14\/23\/5140"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,25]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]}},"alternative-id":["polym14235140"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/polym14235140","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4360"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2073-4360"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,25]]}}}